Article Sidebar

Submitted
November 12, 2020
Accepted
December 21, 2020
Published
December 21, 2020
Download
PDF
Statistic
Read Counter : 935 Download : 697

Main Article Content

Abstract

In the dawn of space era, State-driven and monopolized the space activities. This was exacerbated by high cost, military interference and the uncertain possibilities of civilian use. Nevertheless, as space technology grew, the enormous benefits created by space activities gradually motivated private companies to spend more capital and to use space for commercial purposes. Recently, two major of private space firms, SpaceX and Mars One reportedly has released their mission to Mars in order to conducted Mars Colonization Plan. On the other hand, the Outer Space Treaty and the rest of Corpus Juris Spatialis clearly prohibits to do appropriation on the Moon and the other Celestial Bodies, including Mars. It will be a new challenge for all legal actors, especially in the sense of the outer space regime, to explore this concept. This study applies normative legal research methodology. This study found: the current Outer Space Treaty particularly related to the non-appropriation principle is not relevant to the development of space technology and activities. Then, in this study the non-appropriation principle will be revisited based on the customary international law mechanism. Second, this study found the suitable scheme of appropriation during Mars Colonization Plan by establishing an Independent entity which authorize and organize the activities and also by implementing several stages in appropriating the Martian areas. Third, this study then proposed legal framework through amending and modernizing the Outer Space Treaty in order to compromise between the non-appropriation principle and the development of space commercialization.

Keywords: Corpus Juris Spatialis; Mars Colonization; Non-Appropriation

Rencana Kolonisasi Mars: Kemungkinan Dan Skema Pengambilalihan Di Mars

Abstrak

Di awal era keantariksaan, kegiatan keantariksaan digerakkan dan dimonopoli oleh negara. Ini diperburuk dengan adanya biaya tinggi, campur tangan militer, dan kemungkinan penggunaan oleh sipil yang tidak pasti. Namun, seiring dengan berkembangnya teknologi ruang angkasa, manfaat besar yang diciptakan oleh aktivitas keantariksaan secara bertahap memotivasi perusahaan swasta untuk menghabiskan lebih banyak modal dan menggunakan ruang tersebut untuk tujuan komersial. Baru-baru ini, dua perusahaan keantariksaan besar swasta, SpaceX dan Mars One, dikabarkan telah merilis misi mereka ke Mars dalam rangka melakukan Rencana Kolonosasi Mars (Mars Colonization Plan). Di sisi lain, Outer Space Treaty dan Corpus Juris Spatialis lainnya secara jelas melarang untuk melakukan perampasan di Bulan dan Benda-benda Langit lainnya, termasuk Mars. Ini akan menjadi tantangan baru bagi semua aktor hukum, terutama dalam arti rezim keantariksaan, untuk mendalami konsep ini. Penelitian ini menggunakan metodologi penelitian hukum normatif. Studi ini menemukan: Traktat Luar Angkasa saat ini khususnya terkait dengan prinsip non-apropriasi tidak relevan dengan perkembangan teknologi dan kegiatan keantariksaan. Kemudian, dalam penelitian ini, prinsip non-apropriasi ditinjau kembali berdasarkan mekanisme hukum kebiasaan internasional. Studi ini juga menemukan, skema apropriasi yang sesuai selama Rencana Kolonisasi Mars adalah dengan membentuk entitas Independen yang menguasai dan mengatur kegiatan dan juga dengan menerapkan beberapa tahap dalam mengambil alih wilayah Mars. Studi ini kemudian mengusulkan kerangka hukum melalui amandemen dan modernisasi Traktat Luar Angkasa untuk mengompromikan antara prinsip non-apropriasi dan pengembangan komersialisasi ruang angkasa.

Kata kunci: Corpus Juris Spasialis, Kolonisasi Mars, non-Apropriasi.

Keywords

Corpus Juris Spatialis Mars Colonization Non-Appropriation

Article Details

License

Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:

a. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.

b. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.

c. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).

How to Cite
Putro, Y. M. (2020). Mars Colonization Plan: The Possibility And Scheme For Appropriation On Mars. Prophetic Law Review, 2(2), 137–158. https://doi.org/10.20885/PLR.vol2.iss2.art2
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC

References

  1. Books
  2. Bergreen, Laurence Voyage to Mars: NASA’s Search for Life Beyond Earth, (Riverhead Books 2000).
  3. C. Jenks, Wilfred, Space Law (Praeger 1965) 201
  4. Diederiks-Verschoor, I.H.Ph & V., Kopal, An Introduction to Space Law, (Kluwer Law International 2008).
  5. Harrison, Todd et.al., Implications of Ultra-Low-Cost Access to Space, (Rowman & Littlefield 2017).
  6. Kleiman, Matthew J., The Little Books of Space Law (American Bar Association 2013).
  7. Kopal V., “Outer Space: A Legal Issue”, in C. Brunner and A. Soucek(eds), Outer Space in Society, politics and law (Springer Wien 2011)
  8. Murthi, K.R. Sridhara & V. Gopalakrishnan, Trends in Outer Space Activities: Legal and Policy Challenges, in Rao, R.V (eds)., Recent Developments in Space Law: Opportunities and Challenges, (Springer Singapore 2017)
  9. Tronchetti, Fabio Fundamentals of Space Law and Policy, (Springer 2013).
  10. Zubrin, Robert M. & Baker, David A. (1996), “Mars Direct: A Proposal for the Rapid Exploration and Colonization of the Red Planet”, in Stanley Schmidt & Robert M. Zubrin (eds), Island in the Sky: Bold New Ideas for Colonizing Space
  11. Journals
  12. Albee, Arden L. “The Unearthly Landscape of Mars”, (2003) 288 Scientific American 49-52.
  13. Bourbonniere, M. ‘National Security Law in Outer Space: The Interface of Exploration and Security’ (2005) 70 Journal of Air Law and Commerce3-62
  14. Collins, David “Efficient Allocation of Real Property Rights on the Planet Mars” (2008) 14 Boston University Journal of Science and Technology Law203
  15. Cooper, Lawrence A. “Encouraging Space Exploration Through a Anew Application of Space Property Rights” (2003)19 Space Policy117
  16. Dasch, Smith, Pierce, “Conference on Space Property Rights: Next Steps” (2000) 8 Proceedings of the Forty-Second Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 174
  17. Do, Sydney, et.al., “An Independent Assessment of the Technical Feasibility of the Mars One Mission Plan – Updated Analysis” (2016) 120 ActaAstronautica192-228
  18. Fountain, “Creating Momentum in Space: Ending the Paralysis Produced by the Common Heritage of Mankind Doctrine” (2003) 35 Connecticut Law Review 1753.
  19. Fountain, Lynn M "Creating Momentum in Space: ending the Paralysis Produced by the 'Common Heritage of Mankind' Doctrine" (2003) 35 Connecticut Law Review 1764
  20. Gabrnowicz, Joanne Irene “Space Law: Its Cold war Origins and Challenges in the Era of Globalization” (2004) 37 Suffolk University Law Review1043
  21. Gangale, Thomas & Dudley-Rowley, Marilyn, “To Build Bifrost: Developing Space Property Rights and Infrastructure” (2005) American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Working Paper
  22. Gangale, Thomas The Development of Outer Space: Sovereignty and Property Rights in International Space Law (Praeger 2009)
  23. Gaspari, Francesco & Alessandra Oliva, The Consolidation of the Five UN Space Treaties into One Comprehensive and Modernized Law of Outer Space Convention: Towards a Global Space Organization, (Proceedings of The Space Treaties at Crossroads: Considerations for de legeferenda, Athens, 28-29 August 2015)
  24. Gruner, Brandon. C. “A New Hope for International Space Law: Incorporating Nineteenth Century First Possession Principles into the 1967 Space Treaty for the Colonization of Outer Space in the Twenty-First Century” (2004) 35 Seton Hall Law Review 304
  25. Heriyanto, D.S.N., Yaries Mahardika Putro, and Haekal Al Asyari, Space Diplomacy as A Way to Face the Era of Space Commercialization in Indonesia, (Proceedings of the 3rd National Seminar of Aerospace and Outer Space, Surabaya, 6-8 August 2018)
  26. Hobe, S. “The Relevance of Current International Space Treaties in the 21st Century” (2002) 27 Annals of Air and Space Law 335-346
  27. Jakosky, B. M. & C.S. Edwards, “Inventory of CO2 Available for Terraforming Mars” (2018) 2 Nature Astronomy 634
  28. Levchenko, Igor et.al., “Mars Colonization: Beyond Getting There” (2019) 3 Global Challenges 1
  29. Mardianis, “Paradigma Baru Kedaulatan dan Yurisdiksi dalam Bidang Penerbangan dan Antariksa”, (Small Gorup Discussion, Universitas Pertahanan, Bogor, 17 February 2020)
  30. Pop,Virgiliu. “Appropriation in Outer Space: The Relationship Between Land and Ownership and Sovereignty on the Celestial Bodies” (2000) 16 Space Policy 276
  31. Qizhi, He. “Certain Legal Aspects of Commercialization of Space Activities” (1990) 15 Annals of Air and Space Law 333-342 Peter D. Nesgos, “Commercial Space Transportation: A New Industry Emerges” (1991) 16 Annals of Air and Space Law 393-423
  32. Thomas, Jonathan “Privatization of space ventures: proposing a proven regulatory theory for future extraterrestrial appropriation” (2005) 1 Brigham Young University International Law & Management Review 219
  33. von der Dunk, F.G. “The Moon Agreement and the Prospect of Commercial Exploitation of Lunar Resources”, (2007) 32 Annals of Air & Space Law 98
  34. Wasser, Alan & Douglas Jobes, “Space Settlements, Property Rights, and International Law: Could a Lunar Settlement Claim the Lunar Real Estate It Needs to Survive?” (2008) 73 Journal of Air Law & Commerce 37
  35. Zubrin, Robert M & Christopher P. McKay, “Terraforming Mars”, in Stanley Schmidt & Robert M. Zubrin (Ed), “Island in the Sky: Bold New Ideas for Colonizing Space” (Wiley 1996) 125-126
  36. Cases
  37. Island of Palmas Case(US v. Netherlands) (1928) 2 R.I.A.A. 829
  38. National Legislation
  39. 51 U.S.C. 10101-71302 (2018).
  40. Commercial Space Launch Act, Pub. L. No. 98-575, 2(7), 98 Stat. 3055 (1984).
  41. Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-492, 118 Stat. 3974 (2004).
  42. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness and Entrepreneurship Act (Spurring Private Aerospace Competitiveness and Entrepreneurship (SPACE) Act), Pub. L. No. 114-90, 51303, 129 Stat. 721 (2015)
  43. Loi du 20 juillet 2017 sur l’explorationetl’utilisation des ressources de l ’espace [Law of 20 July 2017 on the Exploration and Utilization of Space Resources], Journal Officiel Du Grand-Duche De Luxembourg [J.O.] [Official Gazette of Luxembourg], Jul. 28, 2017, at A674-1
  44. International Treaties
  45. Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies New York, done 18 December 1979, entered into force 11 July 1984; 1363 UNTS 3; ATS 1986 No.14; 18 ILM 1434 (1979).
  46. Agreement On the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of objects Launched into Outer Space, (198), 69 UNTS 119, SopS 45-46/1970.
  47. Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, London/Moscow/Washington, done 29 March 1972, entered into force 1 September 1972; 961 UNTS 187; TIAS 7762; 24 UNTS 2389; UKTS 1974 No. 16 Cmnd. 5068; ATS 1975 No.5; 10 ILM 1965 (1971).
  48. Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, New York, done 14 January 1975, entered into force 15 September 1976; 1023 UNTS 15; TIAS 8480; 28 UST 695; UKTS 1978 No. 70; Cmnd. 6256; TS 1986 No. 5; 14 ILM 43 (1975).
  49. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, London/Moscow/Washington, (1967), 610 UNTS.
  50. International Law Documents
  51. General Assembly Resolution 1472, International Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, A//RES/1472(XIV) (12 December 1959), available from https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/1472(XIV)(hereinafter UN GA Res.1472)
  52. UNGA Res. 1721 (XVI) B, of 20 December 1961; General Assembly – Sixteenth Session Resolutions adopted on reports of the First Committee, at 6. (hereinafter UN GA Res.1721)
  53. A/AC.105/INF.139 2 September 1966 (hereinafter Letter from Arthur J. Goldberg)
  54. Websites
  55. Jeff. Foust, Luxembourg Adopts Space Resources Law, (Space news 2017) <http://spacenews.com/luxembourg-adopts-space-resources-law> accessed on 11th of November 2020,
  56. Legitech, Space: The Final Frontier – Luxembourg Provides a Legal Framework for the Commercial Exploitation of Space Resources<https://www.legitech.lu/newsroom/ actualites/space-the-final-frontier-luxembourg-provides-a-legal-framework-for-the-commercialexploitation-of-space-resources> accessed on 11th of November 2020,
  57. Lunar & Planetary Institute of University of Space Research Association “Apollo 11 Mission: Lunar Sample Overview”<https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/ apollo/apollo_11/samples/> accessed 11th of November 2020
  58. Rishika Daryanani & Travis Fulton, Asteroid Mining: Developments in Space Property Rights (Natural Resources Blog 2017) accessed on 11th of November 2020
  59. Spacewatch Global, UAE Space Law Details Announced to Facilitate Space Sector Development (Space watch 2020),<https://spacewatch.global/2020/02/uae-space-law-details-announced-to-facilitate-space-sector-development/> accessed on 11th of November 2020
  60. Miscellaneous
  61. NASA Office of Inspector General, NASA’s Management of Moon Rocks and Other Astromaterials Loaned for Research, Education, and Public Display (NASA 2011)