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Abstract
This research analyzes the pattern of Constitutional Court judicial reviews decisions in the last 20 years since its establishment against Islamic populism cases. This research applies legal normative methodology by conducting a literature review based on secondary data analysis and case study approach. This research concludes that, first, the Constitutional Court in Indonesia is inseparable from the influence of Islamic populism which is proven by the existence of 4/7 decisions that fulfilled the variable on the characteristics of populist decisions. Apart from the strong relationship between the state and religions, this is also coupled with the weakness of procedural law. The Constitutional Court opens the space for strengthening populism in influencing the Constitutional Court decisions. Second, the fading independence of the Constitutional Court may pose a danger to democracy, including to the human rights of minority communities and may eliminate the implementation of plural constitutionalism. Also, various international literature in the last five years shows us the Constitutional Courts have tendencies to challenge the rising of Populist Movement policies made by the Government through judicial review cases. Compared to the other countries, populist movement in Indonesia became a unique phenomenon due to the high influence of Islamic identity in the judges. Not only that, but the recent cases also show the institution more favoring the populist policies made by the government than protecting minority rights.
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Copyright (c) 2024 Muhammad Anugerah Perdana, Muhammad Hamzah Al Faruq, Garuda Era Ruhpinesthi
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Ahmed, Dawood. Religion–State Relations: International IDEA Constitution-Building Primer 8. 2nd ed. Sweden: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA), 2017.
Al Qur’an (n.d.).
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Armingeon, Klaus. “The Effects of Negotiation Democracy: A Comparative Analysis.” European Journal of Political Research 41, no. 1 (January 2002): 81–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00004.
Asy’ari, Hasyim. “Relasi Negara dan Agama di Indonesia.” Jurnal Rechtsvinding, n.d., 1–7.
Baidhowa, Adfin Rochmad. “Defender of Democracy: The Role of Indonesian Constitutional Court in Preventing Rapid Democratic Backsliding.” Constitutional Review 7, no. 1 (May 31, 2021): 124–52. https://doi.org/10.31078/consrev715.
Bisariyadi. “Yudisialisasi Politik Dan Sikap Menahan Diri: Peran Mahkamah Konstitusi Dalam Menguji Undang-Undang.” Jurnal Konstitusi 12, no. 3 (May 20, 2016): 473. https://doi.org/10.31078/jk1233.
Bourchier, David M. “Two Decades of Ideological Contestation in Indonesia: From Democratic Cosmopolitanism to Religious Nationalism.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, April 8, 2019, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2019.1590620.
Bugaric, Bojan. “Could Populism Be Good for Constitutional Democracy?” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 15, no. 1 (October 13, 2019): 41–58. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042927.
Chaidir, Ellydar and Suparto. “Perlunya Pengawasan terhadap Kode Etik dan Perilaku Hakim Konstitusi dalam Rangka Menjaga Martabat dan Kehormatannya (The Need for Supervision on Constitutional Court Judges’ Code of Ethics & Behavior in Order to Uphold Their Dignity and Honor).” UIR Law Review 1, no. 2 (October 2017): 111–26.
Chandranegara, Ibnu Sina. “Defining Judicial Independence and Accountability Post Political Transition.” Constitutional Review 5, no. 2 (November 18, 2019): 294. https://doi.org/10.31078/consrev525.
Constitutional Court Regulation No. 2 of 2021 on Procedures in Judicial Review (n.d.).
David, Bogdan. “Ethics and Judicial Integrity under the Bangalore Principles.” Rais: Journal for Social Sciences 7, no. 2 (November 20, 2023): 50–54. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.10161415.
Fossati, Diego, and Marcus Mietzner. “Analyzing Indonesia’s Populist Electorate.” Asian Survey 59, no. 5 (October 1, 2019): 769–94. https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2019.59.5.769.
Fournier, Théo. “From Rhetoric to Action, A Constitutional Analysis of Populism.” German Law Journal 20, no. 3 (April 2019): 362–81. https://doi.org/10.1017/glj.2019.22.
Gardbaum, Stephen. “Are Strong Constitutional Courts Always a Good Thing for New Democracies?” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, no. 53 (January 20, 2015): 285–320.
González Jácome, Jorge. “In Defense of Judicial Populism: Lessons from Colombia.” Verfassungsblog, May 3, 2017. https://doi.org/10.17176/20170503-112107.
Hadiz, Vedi R, and Richard Robison. “Competing Populisms in Post-Authoritarian Indonesia.” International Political Science Review 38, no. 4 (September 2017): 488–502. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512117697475.
Harel, Alon. “Courts in a Populist World.” Verfassungsblog: On Matters Constitutional, April 27, 2017, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.17176/20170428-104853.
Huda, Ni’matul, Dodik Setiawan Nur Heriyanto, and Allan Fatchan Gani Wardhana. “Legal Status of Ratified International Treaty Under Indonesian Hierarchy of Law.” In Asian Constitutional Law Recent Developments and Trends, 1:11–20. Hanoi, Vietnam: Vietnam National University Press, Hanoi, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/24066.
———. “The Urgency of the Constitutional Preview of Law on the Ratification of International Treaty by the Constitutional Court in Indonesia.” Heliyon 7, no. 9 (September 2021): 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07886.
Ibrahim, Mohammad. “The Judicialization of Discrimination in the Indonesian Constitutional Court.” International Journal of Discrimination and the Law 22, no. 2 (June 2022): 125–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/13582291221094923.
Judicial Integrity Group. “Measures for the Effective Implementation of the Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct (the Implementation Measures).” International Standard. Lusaka, Gambia: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, January 20, 2020. https://www.unodc.org/ji/resdb/data/_220_/measures_for_the_effective_implementation_of_the_bangalore_principles_of_judicial_conduct.html?lng=en.
Judicial Review No. 12 of 2007 of No. 12/PUU-V/2007 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 19 of 2008 of No. 19/PUU-V/2008 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 19 of 2008 of No. 19/PUU-VI/2008 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 24 of 2022 of No. 24/PUU-X/2022 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 24 of 2022 of No. 24/PUU-XX/2022 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 46 of 2010 of No. 46/PUU-VIII/2010 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 46 of 2016 of No. 46/PUU-XIV/2016 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 60 of 2021 of No. 60/PUU-XIX/2021 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 68 of 2014 of No. 68/PUU-XII/2014 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 140 of 2009 of No. 140/PUU-VII/2009 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 140 of 2009 of No. 140/PUU-XIX/2009 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Kureshi, Yasser. “Prism: What Is Judicial Populism and How Does It Work in Pakistan?” dawn.com, February 1, 2019. https://www.dawn.com/news/1461194.
Kurlantzick, Joshua. “Democratic Backsliding and the Reach of ISIS in Southeast Asia.” Current History 115, no. 782 (September 1, 2016): 226–32. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2016.115.782.226.
Kusuma, Farid. “Calon Hakim Konstitusi Usulan Presiden Mulai Tes Wawancara.” suarasurabaya.net (blog), December 11, 2019. https://www.suarasurabaya.net/kelanakota/2019/Calon-Hakim-Konstitusi-Usulan-Presiden-Mulai-Tes-Wawancara/.
Lijphart, Arend. Patterns of Democracy. Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt32bg23.
Margiansyah, Defbry. “Populisme Di Indonesia Kontemporer: Transformasi Persaingan Populisme Dan Konsekuensinya Dalam Dinamika Kontestasi Politik Menjelang Pemilu 2019.” Jurnal Penelitian Politik 16, no. 1 (June 28, 2019): 47–68. https://doi.org/10.14203/jpp.v16i1.783.
Marzuki, Suparman. “Perspektif Mahkamah Konstitusi Tentang Hak Asasi Manusia.” Jurnal Yudisial 6, no. 3 (November 25, 2013): 189–206. https://doi.org/10.29123/jy.v6i3.98.
MD, Moh Mahfud. Perdebatan Hukum Tata Negara Pasca Amandemen Konstitusi. 1st ed. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2011.
Mudde, Cas, and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser. “Studying Populism in Comparative Perspective: Reflections on the Contemporary and Future Research Agenda.” Comparative Political Studies 51, no. 13 (November 2018): 1667–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414018789490.
Nikku, Bala Raju, and Azlinda Azman. “Populism in the Asia: What Role for Asian Social Work?” Social Dialogue: The International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW), September 2017.
Nur Budiman, Bachtiar, Bella Dewi Safitri, Balilah Rizki Putriga, and Vinona Julietta Imanuella Wicaksono. “Populisme: Konsekuensi Dari Stagnasi Politik Dan Demokrasi di Indonesia.” Jurnal PolGov 4, no. 1 (July 6, 2022): 211–43. https://doi.org/10.22146/polgov.v4i1.3916.
Olowu, Dejo. “Quest for Universal Standards of Judicial Integrity: Some Reflections on the Bangalore Principles.” India Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs 69, no. 2 (June 2013): 179–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0974928413481885.
Pappas, Takis S. “Populists in Power.” Journal of Democracy 30, no. 2 (2019): 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2019.0026.
Pimentel, David. “Balancing Judicial Independence and Accountability in a Transitional State: The Case of Thailand.” Pacific Basin Law Journal 33, no. 2 (2016). https://doi.org/10.5070/P8332033161.
———. “Reframing the Independence v. Accountability Debate: Defining Judicial Structure in Light of Judges’ Courage and Integrity.” Cleveland State Law Review 57, no. 1 (2009). https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/clevstlrev/vol57/iss1/3.
Ristawati, Rosa, and Radian Salman. “Judicial Independence Vis-à-Vis Judicial Populism: The Case of Ulayat Rights and Educational Rights.” Constitutional Review 6, no. 1 (June 2, 2020): 110. https://doi.org/10.31078/consrev614.
Ritonga, Alwi Dahlan. “Mencermati Populisme Prabowo Sebagai Bentuk Gaya Diskursif Saat Kampanye Politik Pada Pemilihan Presiden 2019.” Politeia: Jurnal Ilmu Politik 12, no. 1 (January 30, 2020): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.32734/politeia.v12i1.3170.
Roos, Stefanie Ricarda, and Cristi Danileţ. Principiile De La Bangalore Privind Conduita Judiciară: Comentariu Asupra Principiilor De La Bangalore Privind Conduita Judiciară. Bucureşti: C. H. Beck : Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, 2010.
Seibert-Fohr, Anja, ed. “Introduction the Challenge of Transition.” In Judicial Independence in Transition, 233:1–15. Beiträge Zum Ausländischen Öffentlichen Recht Und Völkerrecht. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28299-7_1.
Szente, Zoltán, and Fruzsina Gárdos-Orosz. “The Impact of Populism on Constitutional Interpretation in the Eu Member States.” The International Journal of Human Rights 26, no. 7 (August 9, 2022): 1141–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2022.2106221.
Tavits, Margit. “The Size of Government in Majoritarian and Consensus Democracies.” Comparative Political Studies 37, no. 3 (April 2004): 340–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414003262068.
Wahid, Marzuki. Fiqh Madzhab Negara: Kritik atas Politik Hukum Islam di Indonesia. 1st ed. Yogyakarta: LKIS Yogyakarta, 2001.
Wicaksono, Dian Agung, Faiz Rahman, and Khotibul Umam. “Pemetaan Pola Permohonan Dan Putusan Dalam Pengujian Undang-Undang Dengan Substansi Hukum Islam.” Jurnal Konstitusi 18, no. 3 (February 15, 2022): 504. https://doi.org/10.31078/jk1832.
References
Adji, Oemar Seno. Peradilan Bebas Negara Hukum. Jakarta: Erlangga, 1985.
Ahmed, Dawood. Religion–State Relations: International IDEA Constitution-Building Primer 8. 2nd ed. Sweden: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA), 2017.
Al Qur’an (n.d.).
Anwar, Bagus. “Rekonstruksi Pengawasan Etik Hakim Mahkamah Konstitusi Dalam Perspektif Hukum Administrasi Negara.” Staatsrecht: Jurnal Hukum Kenegaraan Dan Politik Islam 1, no. 1 (November 10, 2021): 39–51. https://doi.org/10.14421/staatsrecht.v1i1.2374.
Armingeon, Klaus. “The Effects of Negotiation Democracy: A Comparative Analysis.” European Journal of Political Research 41, no. 1 (January 2002): 81–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00004.
Asy’ari, Hasyim. “Relasi Negara dan Agama di Indonesia.” Jurnal Rechtsvinding, n.d., 1–7.
Baidhowa, Adfin Rochmad. “Defender of Democracy: The Role of Indonesian Constitutional Court in Preventing Rapid Democratic Backsliding.” Constitutional Review 7, no. 1 (May 31, 2021): 124–52. https://doi.org/10.31078/consrev715.
Bisariyadi. “Yudisialisasi Politik Dan Sikap Menahan Diri: Peran Mahkamah Konstitusi Dalam Menguji Undang-Undang.” Jurnal Konstitusi 12, no. 3 (May 20, 2016): 473. https://doi.org/10.31078/jk1233.
Bourchier, David M. “Two Decades of Ideological Contestation in Indonesia: From Democratic Cosmopolitanism to Religious Nationalism.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, April 8, 2019, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2019.1590620.
Bugaric, Bojan. “Could Populism Be Good for Constitutional Democracy?” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 15, no. 1 (October 13, 2019): 41–58. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042927.
Chaidir, Ellydar and Suparto. “Perlunya Pengawasan terhadap Kode Etik dan Perilaku Hakim Konstitusi dalam Rangka Menjaga Martabat dan Kehormatannya (The Need for Supervision on Constitutional Court Judges’ Code of Ethics & Behavior in Order to Uphold Their Dignity and Honor).” UIR Law Review 1, no. 2 (October 2017): 111–26.
Chandranegara, Ibnu Sina. “Defining Judicial Independence and Accountability Post Political Transition.” Constitutional Review 5, no. 2 (November 18, 2019): 294. https://doi.org/10.31078/consrev525.
Constitutional Court Regulation No. 2 of 2021 on Procedures in Judicial Review (n.d.).
David, Bogdan. “Ethics and Judicial Integrity under the Bangalore Principles.” Rais: Journal for Social Sciences 7, no. 2 (November 20, 2023): 50–54. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.10161415.
Fossati, Diego, and Marcus Mietzner. “Analyzing Indonesia’s Populist Electorate.” Asian Survey 59, no. 5 (October 1, 2019): 769–94. https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2019.59.5.769.
Fournier, Théo. “From Rhetoric to Action, A Constitutional Analysis of Populism.” German Law Journal 20, no. 3 (April 2019): 362–81. https://doi.org/10.1017/glj.2019.22.
Gardbaum, Stephen. “Are Strong Constitutional Courts Always a Good Thing for New Democracies?” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, no. 53 (January 20, 2015): 285–320.
González Jácome, Jorge. “In Defense of Judicial Populism: Lessons from Colombia.” Verfassungsblog, May 3, 2017. https://doi.org/10.17176/20170503-112107.
Hadiz, Vedi R, and Richard Robison. “Competing Populisms in Post-Authoritarian Indonesia.” International Political Science Review 38, no. 4 (September 2017): 488–502. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512117697475.
Harel, Alon. “Courts in a Populist World.” Verfassungsblog: On Matters Constitutional, April 27, 2017, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.17176/20170428-104853.
Huda, Ni’matul, Dodik Setiawan Nur Heriyanto, and Allan Fatchan Gani Wardhana. “Legal Status of Ratified International Treaty Under Indonesian Hierarchy of Law.” In Asian Constitutional Law Recent Developments and Trends, 1:11–20. Hanoi, Vietnam: Vietnam National University Press, Hanoi, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/24066.
———. “The Urgency of the Constitutional Preview of Law on the Ratification of International Treaty by the Constitutional Court in Indonesia.” Heliyon 7, no. 9 (September 2021): 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07886.
Ibrahim, Mohammad. “The Judicialization of Discrimination in the Indonesian Constitutional Court.” International Journal of Discrimination and the Law 22, no. 2 (June 2022): 125–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/13582291221094923.
Judicial Integrity Group. “Measures for the Effective Implementation of the Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct (the Implementation Measures).” International Standard. Lusaka, Gambia: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, January 20, 2020. https://www.unodc.org/ji/resdb/data/_220_/measures_for_the_effective_implementation_of_the_bangalore_principles_of_judicial_conduct.html?lng=en.
Judicial Review No. 12 of 2007 of No. 12/PUU-V/2007 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 19 of 2008 of No. 19/PUU-V/2008 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 19 of 2008 of No. 19/PUU-VI/2008 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 24 of 2022 of No. 24/PUU-X/2022 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 24 of 2022 of No. 24/PUU-XX/2022 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 46 of 2010 of No. 46/PUU-VIII/2010 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 46 of 2016 of No. 46/PUU-XIV/2016 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 60 of 2021 of No. 60/PUU-XIX/2021 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 68 of 2014 of No. 68/PUU-XII/2014 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 140 of 2009 of No. 140/PUU-VII/2009 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Judicial Review No. 140 of 2009 of No. 140/PUU-XIX/2009 Constitutional Court of The Republic of Indonesia (n.d.).
Kureshi, Yasser. “Prism: What Is Judicial Populism and How Does It Work in Pakistan?” dawn.com, February 1, 2019. https://www.dawn.com/news/1461194.
Kurlantzick, Joshua. “Democratic Backsliding and the Reach of ISIS in Southeast Asia.” Current History 115, no. 782 (September 1, 2016): 226–32. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2016.115.782.226.
Kusuma, Farid. “Calon Hakim Konstitusi Usulan Presiden Mulai Tes Wawancara.” suarasurabaya.net (blog), December 11, 2019. https://www.suarasurabaya.net/kelanakota/2019/Calon-Hakim-Konstitusi-Usulan-Presiden-Mulai-Tes-Wawancara/.
Lijphart, Arend. Patterns of Democracy. Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt32bg23.
Margiansyah, Defbry. “Populisme Di Indonesia Kontemporer: Transformasi Persaingan Populisme Dan Konsekuensinya Dalam Dinamika Kontestasi Politik Menjelang Pemilu 2019.” Jurnal Penelitian Politik 16, no. 1 (June 28, 2019): 47–68. https://doi.org/10.14203/jpp.v16i1.783.
Marzuki, Suparman. “Perspektif Mahkamah Konstitusi Tentang Hak Asasi Manusia.” Jurnal Yudisial 6, no. 3 (November 25, 2013): 189–206. https://doi.org/10.29123/jy.v6i3.98.
MD, Moh Mahfud. Perdebatan Hukum Tata Negara Pasca Amandemen Konstitusi. 1st ed. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2011.
Mudde, Cas, and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser. “Studying Populism in Comparative Perspective: Reflections on the Contemporary and Future Research Agenda.” Comparative Political Studies 51, no. 13 (November 2018): 1667–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414018789490.
Nikku, Bala Raju, and Azlinda Azman. “Populism in the Asia: What Role for Asian Social Work?” Social Dialogue: The International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW), September 2017.
Nur Budiman, Bachtiar, Bella Dewi Safitri, Balilah Rizki Putriga, and Vinona Julietta Imanuella Wicaksono. “Populisme: Konsekuensi Dari Stagnasi Politik Dan Demokrasi di Indonesia.” Jurnal PolGov 4, no. 1 (July 6, 2022): 211–43. https://doi.org/10.22146/polgov.v4i1.3916.
Olowu, Dejo. “Quest for Universal Standards of Judicial Integrity: Some Reflections on the Bangalore Principles.” India Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs 69, no. 2 (June 2013): 179–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0974928413481885.
Pappas, Takis S. “Populists in Power.” Journal of Democracy 30, no. 2 (2019): 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2019.0026.
Pimentel, David. “Balancing Judicial Independence and Accountability in a Transitional State: The Case of Thailand.” Pacific Basin Law Journal 33, no. 2 (2016). https://doi.org/10.5070/P8332033161.
———. “Reframing the Independence v. Accountability Debate: Defining Judicial Structure in Light of Judges’ Courage and Integrity.” Cleveland State Law Review 57, no. 1 (2009). https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/clevstlrev/vol57/iss1/3.
Ristawati, Rosa, and Radian Salman. “Judicial Independence Vis-à-Vis Judicial Populism: The Case of Ulayat Rights and Educational Rights.” Constitutional Review 6, no. 1 (June 2, 2020): 110. https://doi.org/10.31078/consrev614.
Ritonga, Alwi Dahlan. “Mencermati Populisme Prabowo Sebagai Bentuk Gaya Diskursif Saat Kampanye Politik Pada Pemilihan Presiden 2019.” Politeia: Jurnal Ilmu Politik 12, no. 1 (January 30, 2020): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.32734/politeia.v12i1.3170.
Roos, Stefanie Ricarda, and Cristi Danileţ. Principiile De La Bangalore Privind Conduita Judiciară: Comentariu Asupra Principiilor De La Bangalore Privind Conduita Judiciară. Bucureşti: C. H. Beck : Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, 2010.
Seibert-Fohr, Anja, ed. “Introduction the Challenge of Transition.” In Judicial Independence in Transition, 233:1–15. Beiträge Zum Ausländischen Öffentlichen Recht Und Völkerrecht. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28299-7_1.
Szente, Zoltán, and Fruzsina Gárdos-Orosz. “The Impact of Populism on Constitutional Interpretation in the Eu Member States.” The International Journal of Human Rights 26, no. 7 (August 9, 2022): 1141–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2022.2106221.
Tavits, Margit. “The Size of Government in Majoritarian and Consensus Democracies.” Comparative Political Studies 37, no. 3 (April 2004): 340–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414003262068.
Wahid, Marzuki. Fiqh Madzhab Negara: Kritik atas Politik Hukum Islam di Indonesia. 1st ed. Yogyakarta: LKIS Yogyakarta, 2001.
Wicaksono, Dian Agung, Faiz Rahman, and Khotibul Umam. “Pemetaan Pola Permohonan Dan Putusan Dalam Pengujian Undang-Undang Dengan Substansi Hukum Islam.” Jurnal Konstitusi 18, no. 3 (February 15, 2022): 504. https://doi.org/10.31078/jk1832.