Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
The modernization of reproductive technology has made things easier for couples who are not yet blessed with children. Currently, the practice of surrogacy has been successful in providing children through surrogate mothers. Abroad, this practice can cross national borders, where the surrogate mother can come from a different nationality than the child's prospective parents. This practice is done to get good genes or offspring according to their hopes, especially if the couple rents a womb from a European or East Asian race. Two legal issues are studied in this research, namely those related to the legal status of the practice of surrogacy, which is cross-border according to private international law and Prophetic Law. Apart from that, this research also examines the urgency of regulating the practice of surrogacy in Indonesian law. This research, using a normative legal research methodology, concludes that even though the practice of surrogacy is considered legal based on private international law, from an Islamic Law perspective, this practice is strictly prohibited (Haram) because it obscures the child's lineage status. The law in Indonesia really needs to regulate the legal vacuum related to the surrogate mother practice both domestically and across national borders to ensure legal certainty.
Keywords
Article Details
Copyright (c) 2024 Dodik Setiawan Nur Heriyanto, Ulvi Gasimzadeh
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
a. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
b. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
c. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
References
Al Munawar, Said Aqil Husin, Hasan M. Noer, and Musyafaullah. Hukum Islam & Pluralitas Sosial. 2nd ed. Jakarta: Penamadani, 2005.
Al-Qur’an (n.d.).
Amiruddin, and Zainal Asikin. Pengantar Metode Penelitian Hukum. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2018.
Anderson, Elizabeth S. “Is Women’s Labor a Commodity?” Philosophy & Public Affairs 19, no. 1 (1990): 71–92. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2265363.
Arneson, Richard J. “Commodification and Commerical Surrogacy.” Philosophy & Public Affairs 21, no. 2 (1992): 132–64. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2265230.
Arum, Khusni. “Pengembangan Pendidikan Agama Islam Berbasis Sosial Profetik (Analisis Terhadap Pemikiran Kuntowijoyo).” Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, April 28, 2018, 177–96. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol17.iss2.art2.
Baker, B. M. “A Case for Permitting Altruistic Surrogacy.” Hypatia 11, no. 2 (1996): 34–48.
“Belgian Ethics Body Asks for Legalisation of Surrogacy,” August 6, 2023. https://cne.news/article/3174-belgian-ethics-body-asks-for-legalisation-of-surrogacy.
Bindel, Julie. “Surrogacy: Human Right, or Just Wrong?” Al Jazeera, September 8, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2023/9/8/surrogacy-human-right-or-just-wrong.
Borah, Meghna, Arup Kumar Hazarika, and Unmilan Kalita. “Right to Be a Surrogate: Biological, Constitutional and Economic Perspectives.” Space and Culture, India 8, no. 1 (June 29, 2020): 78–90. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v8i1.699.
Brandão, Pedro, and Nicolás Garrido. “Commercial Surrogacy: An Overview.” Revista Brasileira de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia / RBGO Gynecology and Obstetrics 44, no. 12 (December 2022): 1141–58. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-1759774.
Brunet, Laurence, Janeen Carruthers, Konstantina Davaki, Derek King, Claire Marzo, and Julie McCandless. “A Comparative Study on the Regime of Surrogacy in EU Member States.” European Parliament, May 2013.
California Code, Family Code, 7960 FAM § (n.d.).
Cassimatis, Anthony E. “Public Policy Under The New York Convention - Bridges Between Domestic and International Courts and Private and Public International Law.” National Law School of India Review 31, no. 1 (2019).
Choe, Jennifer, and Anthony L. Shanks. “In Vitro Fertilization.” In StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 2024. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562266/.
Conklin, Caitlin. “Simply Inconsistent: Surrogacy Laws in the United States and the Pressing Need for Regulation.” Women’s Rights Law Reporter 35 (2014 2013): 67. https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/worts35&id=75&div=&collection=.
Daniels, Ken, and Karyn Taylor. “Surrogacy: The Private Troubles and Public Issues.” Community Mental Health in New Zealand 6, no. 2 (1991): 28–50.
Dar, Shir, Tal Lazer, Sonja Swanson, Jan Silverman, Cindy Wasser, Sergey I. Moskovtsev, Agata Sojecki, and Clifford L. Librach. “Assisted Reproduction Involving Gestational Surrogacy: An Analysis of the Medical, Psychosocial and Legal Issues: Experience from a Large Surrogacy Program.” Human Reproduction (Oxford, England) 30, no. 2 (February 2015): 345–52. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deu333.
detikhealth. “Apakah Surrogate Mother Solusi bagi Pasangan Sulit Memiliki Anak?,” July 28, 2023. https://health.detik.com/berita-detikhealth/d-6846526/apakah-surrogate-mother-solusi-bagi-pasangan-sulit-memiliki-anak.
Djuwita, Ita, Arief Boediono, Srihadi Agungpriyono, Iman Supriatna, Mozes Toelihere, and Yuhara Sukra. “In Vitro Fertilization and Embryo Development of Vitrified Ovine Oocytes Stressed in Sucrose.” HAYATI Journal of Biosciences 12, no. 2 (June 2005): 73–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1978-3019(16)30328-X.
Earle, Sarah, Carol Komaromy, and Linda L. Layne. Understanding Reproductive Loss: Perspectives on Life, Death and Fertility. Farham, Surrey, England ; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012.
Engel, Martin. “Cross-Border Surrogacy: Time for a Convention?” In Family Law and Culture in Europe, edited by Katharina Boele-Woelki, Nina Dethloff, and Werner Gephart, 1st ed., 199–216. Intersentia, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781780685274.016.
Farida Ulvi Na’imah, Mohammad Fahrudi Noer. “Nasab Bayi Tabung Dalam Perspektif Hukum Islam Dan Maqasid Syari’ah.” Al-Adalah : Jurnal Syariah Dan Hukum Islam 4, no. 2 (December 10, 2019): 149–76. https://doi.org/10.31538/adlh.v4i2.550.
Fuady, Munir. Metode Riset Hukum: Pendekatan Teori Dan Konsep. 1st ed. Depok: Rajawali Pers, 2018.
Gautama, Sudargo. Pengantar Hukum Perdata Internasional Indonesia. Bandung: Binacipta, 2012.
Goli, Marjan, Ziba Farajzadegan, Zeinab Heidari, and Shahnaz Kohan. “Reproductive and Sexual Health of Surrogate Mothers, Developing a Care Program: A Protocol for Mixed Methods Study.” Reproductive Health 16, no. 1 (December 2019): 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-019-0687-8.
Government Regulation No. 61 on Health Reproduction (2014).
Hamzani, Achmad Irwan. “Nasab Anak Luar Kawin Pasca Putusan Mahkamah Konstitusi Nomor 46/PUU-VIII/2010.” Jurnal Konstitusi 12, no. 1 (May 20, 2016): 57. https://doi.org/10.31078/jk1214.
H.S., Salim. Perkembangan Hukum Kontrak Innominaat Di Indonesia. 1st ed. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika, 2003.
Igareda González, Noelia. “Legal and Ethical Issues in Cross-Border Gestational Surrogacy.” Fertility and Sterility 113, no. 5 (May 2020): 916–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2020.03.003.
Indarwati, Ika, Uki Retno Budihastuti, and Yulia Lanti Retno Dewi. “Analysis of Factors Influencing Female Infertility.” Journal of Maternal and Child Health 2, no. 2 (2017): 150–61. https://doi.org/10.26911/thejmch.2017.02.02.06.
Indonesian Civil Code (n.d.).
Jadva, Vasanti, Natalie Gamble, Helen Prosser, and Susan Imrie. “Parents’ Relationship with Their Surrogate in Cross-Border and Domestic Surrogacy Arrangements: Comparisons by Sexual Orientation and Location.” Fertility and Sterility 111, no. 3 (March 2019): 562–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.11.029.
K, Duden. “International Surrogate Motherhood — Shifting the Focus to the Child.” Zeitschrift Für Europäisches Privatrecht, no. 3 (2015).
“Kompilasi Hukum Islam Dalam Perspektif Politik Hukum Indonesia Oleh : Saiful, S. Ag. MH | (2/4) - Direktorat Jenderal Badan Peradilan Agama,” n.d. https://badilag.mahkamahagung.go.id/artikel/publikasi/artikel/kompilasi-hukum-islam-dalam-perspektif-politik-hukum-indonesia-oleh-saiful-s-ag-mh-24.
Kosters, J. “Public Policy in Private International Law.” The Yale Law Journal 29, no. 7 (May 1920): 745. https://doi.org/10.2307/786607.
Kuntowijoyo. Islam Sebagai Ilmu: Epistemologi, Metodologi, Dan Etika. 1st ed. Jakarta : Ujung Berung, Bandung: Teraju ; Didistribusikan oleh Mizan Media Utama, 2004.
Law No. 1 of 1974 on Marriage.
Law No. 35 on the Amandment of Law No. 23 of 2002 on Children Protection.
Law of Republic of Indonesia Number 36 on Health (2009).
Mackenzie, Scott C., Dita Wickins-Drazilova, and Jeremy Wickins. “The Ethics of Fertility Treatment for Same-Sex Male Couples: Considerations for A Modern Fertility Clinic.” European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 244 (January 2020): 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2019.11.011.
Malindi, Lintang Wistu, and Mochammad Najib Imanullah. “Kedudukan Surogasi dan Status Hukum Anak dalam Perspektif Hukum Perdata.” Privat Law 9, no. 1 (2021). https://doi.org/10.20961/privat.v9i1.28926.
McConville, Michael, and Wing Hong Chui, eds. Research Methods for Law. 2nd ed. Research Methods for the Arts and Humanities. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2017.
Milazzo, Adriana, George Mnatzaganian, Adam G. Elshaug, Sheryl A. Hemphill, Janet E. Hiller, and on behalf of The Astute Health Study Group. “Depression and Anxiety Outcomes Associated with Failed Assisted Reproductive Technologies: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Edited by Cornelis B Lambalk. PLOS ONE 11, no. 11 (November 11, 2016): e0165805. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165805.
Mitra, Sayani, Silke Schicktanz, and Tulsi Patel, eds. Cross-Cultural Comparisons on Surrogacy and Egg Donation: Interdisciplinary Perspectives from India, Germany and Israel. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
“MK Beri Status Hukum Anak Di Luar Nikah,” February 17, 2012. https://www.mkri.id/index.php?page=web.Berita&id=6507&menu=2.
Moleong, Lexy J. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya, 2021.
Murphy, Kent. “The Traditional View of Public Policy and Ordre Public in Private International Law.” Georgia Journal of International & Comparative Law 11, no. 3 (1981). https://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/gjicl/vol11/iss3/9/.
Muttaqin, Husnul. “Menuju Sosiologi Profetik.” Jurnal Sosiologi Reflektif 10, no. 1 (September 9, 2016): 219. https://doi.org/10.14421/jsr.v10i1.1147.
Pande, Amrita. “Commercial Surrogacy in India: Manufacturing a Perfect Mother‐Worker.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 35, no. 4 (June 2010): 969–92. https://doi.org/10.1086/651043.
———. “Not an ‘Angel’, Not a ‘Whore’: Surrogates as ‘Dirty’ Workers in India.” Indian Journal of Gender Studies 16, no. 2 (June 2009): 141–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/097152150901600201.
Patel, Ansha, Pratap Kumar, and P. S. V. N. Sharma. “‘The Miracle Mothers and Marvelous Babies’: Psychosocial Aspects of Surrogacy – A Narrative Review.” Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences 13, no. 2 (2020): 89. https://doi.org/10.4103/jhrs.JHRS_33_20.
Patel, NayanaHitesh, YuvrajDigvijaysingh Jadeja, HarshaKarsan Bhadarka, MolinaNiket Patel, NiketHitesh Patel, and NilofarRahematkhan Sodagar. “Insight into Different Aspects of Surrogacy Practices.” Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences 11, no. 3 (2018): 212. https://doi.org/10.4103/jhrs.JHRS_138_17.
Permadi, Wiryawan. Hanya 7 Hari Memahami Fertilisasi In Vitro. Bandung: Refika Aditama, 2008.
Petersen, Kerry. “Cross Border Commercial Surrogacy: A Global Patchwork of Inconsistency and Confusion.” In Law and Global Health, edited by Michael Freeman, Sarah Hawkes, and Belinda Bennett, 209–22. Oxford University Press, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199688999.003.0014.
Prodjodikoro, Wirjono. Asas-Asas Hukum Perdata Internasional. Bandung: Sumur, 1992.
Purdy, Laura M. “Surrogate Mothering: Exploitation or Empowerment.” Bioethics 3, no. 1 (January 1989): 18–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.1989.tb00324.x.
Qaradawi, Yusuf, As’ad Yasin, and Abdul Hayyie Kattani. Fatwa-fatwa Kontemporer Jilid 3. 3rd ed. Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 2001.
Regulation of Ministry of Health No. 43 on Providing Assisted on Reproductive Services or Pregnancy with other than Natural Means (2015).
Riddle, M. P. “The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Conceptualizing Reproductive Loss: Clinical Implications of the Narratives of Gestational Surrogates in the USA.” Journal of Religion and Health 60, no. 1 (February 2021): 282–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-01076-7.
Sandel, Michael J. What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limit of Market. London New York, New York Ontario: Penguin Books, 2013.
Sanjaya, Umar Haris, and Aunur Rahim Faqih. Hukum Perkawinan Islam Di Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Gama Media, 2017.
Santoso, Lukman. “Towards Religiosity-Based Legal Science: Critical-Constructive Prophetic Law on Positivism Paradigm.” Prophetic Law Review 2, no. 2 (December 1, 2020). https://doi.org/10.20885/PLR.vol2.iss2.art6.
Saxena, Pikee, Archana Mishra, and Sonia Malik. “Surrogacy: Ethical and Legal Issues.” Indian Journal of Community Medicine 37, no. 4 (2012): 211. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-0218.103466.
“Sewa Rahim Di Indonesia Dilakukan Diam-Diam,” n.d. https://health.detik.com/ibu-dan-anak/d-1370505/sewa-rahim-di-indonesia-dilakukan-diam-diam.
Shalev, Carmel. “Birth Power: The Case for Surrogacy.” Columbia Law Review 90, no. 4 (May 1990): 1177. https://doi.org/10.2307/1122931.
Shenfield, F., G. Pennings, J. Cohen, P. Devroey, G. De Wert, and B. Tarlatzis. “ESHRE Task Force on Ethics and Law 10: Surrogacy.” Human Reproduction 20, no. 10 (October 1, 2005): 2705–7. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dei147.
Singer, Peter, and Deane Wells. Making Babies: The New Science and Ethics of Conception. New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1985.
Soekanto, Soerjono. Pengantar Penelitian Hukum. 2nd ed. Jakarta: Penerbit Universitas Indonesia (UI-Press), 2006.
Soekanto, Soerjono, and Sri Mamudji. Penelitian Hukum Normatif. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2015.
Surrogate.com. “Surrogacy Laws by State,” April 8, 2016. https://surrogate.com/intended-parents/surrogacy-laws-and-legal-information/surrogacy-laws-by-state/.
Swain, Margaret E., and Colin James Rogerson. “Addressing Legal Issues in Cross-Border Gestational Surrogacy: Current Topics and Trends.” Fertility and Sterility 115, no. 2 (February 2021): 268–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2020.11.031.
Syamsudin, M., ed. Ilmu Hukum Profetik: Gagasan Awal, Landasan Kefilsafatan, Dan Kemungkinan Pengembangannya Di Era Postmodern. 1st ed. Yogyakarta: Pusat Studi Hukum (PSH) FH UII kerja sama dengan FH UII Press, 2013.
Syarifuddin, Amir. Hukum Perkawinan Islam Di Indonesia: Antara Fiqh Munakahat Dan Undang-Undang Perkawinan. 1st ed. Jakarta: Kencana, 2009.
The Constitutional Court Decision No. 46/PUU-VIII/2010 (2012).
Van Zyl, L. “Interpretations, Perspectives and Intentions in Surrogate Motherhood.” Journal of Medical Ethics 26, no. 5 (October 1, 2000): 404–9. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.26.5.404.
Veiligheid, Ministerie van Justitie en. “Legislative Surrogacy Regulations.” Nieuwsbericht. Ministerie van Algemene Zaken, June 30, 2023. https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2023/06/30/legislative-surrogacy-regulations.
Vincent, C. Paul, and Alene D. Aftandilian. “Liberation or Exploitation: Commercial Surrogacy and the Indian Surrogate.” Suffolk Transnational Law Review 36 (2013): 671. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141276959.
Vishvendu, Jaipuriar. “Womb Rental Ends in Death - Telegraph India,” July 28, 2014. https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/womb-rental-ends-in-death/cid/164231.
Wasman, and Wardah Nuroniyah. Hukum Perkawinan Islam di Indonesia: Perbandingan Fiqih dan Hukum Positif. 1st ed. Yogyakarta: Teras, 2011.
Wignjosoebroto, Soetandyo. Hukum: Konsep Dan Metode. 1st ed. Malang: Setara Press, 2013.
World Wide Surrogacy Specialists. “The History of Surrogacy: A Legal Timeline,” April 12, 2021. https://www.worldwidesurrogacy.org/blog/the-history-of-surrogacy-a-legal-timeline.
Yaswirman. Hukum Keluarga: Karakteristik Dan Prospek Doktrin Islam Dan Adat Dalam Masyarakat Matrilineal Minangkabau. 1st ed. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2011.
Zahrowati. “Bayi Tabung (Fertilisasi In Vitro) Dengan Menggunakan Sperma Donor dan Rahim Sewaan (Surrogate Mother) dalam Perspektif Hukum Perdata.” Halu Oleo Law Review 1, no. 2 (March 14, 2018): 196. https://doi.org/10.33561/holrev.v1i2.3642.
References
Al Munawar, Said Aqil Husin, Hasan M. Noer, and Musyafaullah. Hukum Islam & Pluralitas Sosial. 2nd ed. Jakarta: Penamadani, 2005.
Al-Qur’an (n.d.).
Amiruddin, and Zainal Asikin. Pengantar Metode Penelitian Hukum. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2018.
Anderson, Elizabeth S. “Is Women’s Labor a Commodity?” Philosophy & Public Affairs 19, no. 1 (1990): 71–92. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2265363.
Arneson, Richard J. “Commodification and Commerical Surrogacy.” Philosophy & Public Affairs 21, no. 2 (1992): 132–64. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2265230.
Arum, Khusni. “Pengembangan Pendidikan Agama Islam Berbasis Sosial Profetik (Analisis Terhadap Pemikiran Kuntowijoyo).” Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, April 28, 2018, 177–96. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol17.iss2.art2.
Baker, B. M. “A Case for Permitting Altruistic Surrogacy.” Hypatia 11, no. 2 (1996): 34–48.
“Belgian Ethics Body Asks for Legalisation of Surrogacy,” August 6, 2023. https://cne.news/article/3174-belgian-ethics-body-asks-for-legalisation-of-surrogacy.
Bindel, Julie. “Surrogacy: Human Right, or Just Wrong?” Al Jazeera, September 8, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2023/9/8/surrogacy-human-right-or-just-wrong.
Borah, Meghna, Arup Kumar Hazarika, and Unmilan Kalita. “Right to Be a Surrogate: Biological, Constitutional and Economic Perspectives.” Space and Culture, India 8, no. 1 (June 29, 2020): 78–90. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v8i1.699.
Brandão, Pedro, and Nicolás Garrido. “Commercial Surrogacy: An Overview.” Revista Brasileira de Ginecologia e Obstetrícia / RBGO Gynecology and Obstetrics 44, no. 12 (December 2022): 1141–58. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-1759774.
Brunet, Laurence, Janeen Carruthers, Konstantina Davaki, Derek King, Claire Marzo, and Julie McCandless. “A Comparative Study on the Regime of Surrogacy in EU Member States.” European Parliament, May 2013.
California Code, Family Code, 7960 FAM § (n.d.).
Cassimatis, Anthony E. “Public Policy Under The New York Convention - Bridges Between Domestic and International Courts and Private and Public International Law.” National Law School of India Review 31, no. 1 (2019).
Choe, Jennifer, and Anthony L. Shanks. “In Vitro Fertilization.” In StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 2024. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562266/.
Conklin, Caitlin. “Simply Inconsistent: Surrogacy Laws in the United States and the Pressing Need for Regulation.” Women’s Rights Law Reporter 35 (2014 2013): 67. https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/worts35&id=75&div=&collection=.
Daniels, Ken, and Karyn Taylor. “Surrogacy: The Private Troubles and Public Issues.” Community Mental Health in New Zealand 6, no. 2 (1991): 28–50.
Dar, Shir, Tal Lazer, Sonja Swanson, Jan Silverman, Cindy Wasser, Sergey I. Moskovtsev, Agata Sojecki, and Clifford L. Librach. “Assisted Reproduction Involving Gestational Surrogacy: An Analysis of the Medical, Psychosocial and Legal Issues: Experience from a Large Surrogacy Program.” Human Reproduction (Oxford, England) 30, no. 2 (February 2015): 345–52. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deu333.
detikhealth. “Apakah Surrogate Mother Solusi bagi Pasangan Sulit Memiliki Anak?,” July 28, 2023. https://health.detik.com/berita-detikhealth/d-6846526/apakah-surrogate-mother-solusi-bagi-pasangan-sulit-memiliki-anak.
Djuwita, Ita, Arief Boediono, Srihadi Agungpriyono, Iman Supriatna, Mozes Toelihere, and Yuhara Sukra. “In Vitro Fertilization and Embryo Development of Vitrified Ovine Oocytes Stressed in Sucrose.” HAYATI Journal of Biosciences 12, no. 2 (June 2005): 73–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1978-3019(16)30328-X.
Earle, Sarah, Carol Komaromy, and Linda L. Layne. Understanding Reproductive Loss: Perspectives on Life, Death and Fertility. Farham, Surrey, England ; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012.
Engel, Martin. “Cross-Border Surrogacy: Time for a Convention?” In Family Law and Culture in Europe, edited by Katharina Boele-Woelki, Nina Dethloff, and Werner Gephart, 1st ed., 199–216. Intersentia, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781780685274.016.
Farida Ulvi Na’imah, Mohammad Fahrudi Noer. “Nasab Bayi Tabung Dalam Perspektif Hukum Islam Dan Maqasid Syari’ah.” Al-Adalah : Jurnal Syariah Dan Hukum Islam 4, no. 2 (December 10, 2019): 149–76. https://doi.org/10.31538/adlh.v4i2.550.
Fuady, Munir. Metode Riset Hukum: Pendekatan Teori Dan Konsep. 1st ed. Depok: Rajawali Pers, 2018.
Gautama, Sudargo. Pengantar Hukum Perdata Internasional Indonesia. Bandung: Binacipta, 2012.
Goli, Marjan, Ziba Farajzadegan, Zeinab Heidari, and Shahnaz Kohan. “Reproductive and Sexual Health of Surrogate Mothers, Developing a Care Program: A Protocol for Mixed Methods Study.” Reproductive Health 16, no. 1 (December 2019): 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-019-0687-8.
Government Regulation No. 61 on Health Reproduction (2014).
Hamzani, Achmad Irwan. “Nasab Anak Luar Kawin Pasca Putusan Mahkamah Konstitusi Nomor 46/PUU-VIII/2010.” Jurnal Konstitusi 12, no. 1 (May 20, 2016): 57. https://doi.org/10.31078/jk1214.
H.S., Salim. Perkembangan Hukum Kontrak Innominaat Di Indonesia. 1st ed. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika, 2003.
Igareda González, Noelia. “Legal and Ethical Issues in Cross-Border Gestational Surrogacy.” Fertility and Sterility 113, no. 5 (May 2020): 916–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2020.03.003.
Indarwati, Ika, Uki Retno Budihastuti, and Yulia Lanti Retno Dewi. “Analysis of Factors Influencing Female Infertility.” Journal of Maternal and Child Health 2, no. 2 (2017): 150–61. https://doi.org/10.26911/thejmch.2017.02.02.06.
Indonesian Civil Code (n.d.).
Jadva, Vasanti, Natalie Gamble, Helen Prosser, and Susan Imrie. “Parents’ Relationship with Their Surrogate in Cross-Border and Domestic Surrogacy Arrangements: Comparisons by Sexual Orientation and Location.” Fertility and Sterility 111, no. 3 (March 2019): 562–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.11.029.
K, Duden. “International Surrogate Motherhood — Shifting the Focus to the Child.” Zeitschrift Für Europäisches Privatrecht, no. 3 (2015).
“Kompilasi Hukum Islam Dalam Perspektif Politik Hukum Indonesia Oleh : Saiful, S. Ag. MH | (2/4) - Direktorat Jenderal Badan Peradilan Agama,” n.d. https://badilag.mahkamahagung.go.id/artikel/publikasi/artikel/kompilasi-hukum-islam-dalam-perspektif-politik-hukum-indonesia-oleh-saiful-s-ag-mh-24.
Kosters, J. “Public Policy in Private International Law.” The Yale Law Journal 29, no. 7 (May 1920): 745. https://doi.org/10.2307/786607.
Kuntowijoyo. Islam Sebagai Ilmu: Epistemologi, Metodologi, Dan Etika. 1st ed. Jakarta : Ujung Berung, Bandung: Teraju ; Didistribusikan oleh Mizan Media Utama, 2004.
Law No. 1 of 1974 on Marriage.
Law No. 35 on the Amandment of Law No. 23 of 2002 on Children Protection.
Law of Republic of Indonesia Number 36 on Health (2009).
Mackenzie, Scott C., Dita Wickins-Drazilova, and Jeremy Wickins. “The Ethics of Fertility Treatment for Same-Sex Male Couples: Considerations for A Modern Fertility Clinic.” European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 244 (January 2020): 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2019.11.011.
Malindi, Lintang Wistu, and Mochammad Najib Imanullah. “Kedudukan Surogasi dan Status Hukum Anak dalam Perspektif Hukum Perdata.” Privat Law 9, no. 1 (2021). https://doi.org/10.20961/privat.v9i1.28926.
McConville, Michael, and Wing Hong Chui, eds. Research Methods for Law. 2nd ed. Research Methods for the Arts and Humanities. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2017.
Milazzo, Adriana, George Mnatzaganian, Adam G. Elshaug, Sheryl A. Hemphill, Janet E. Hiller, and on behalf of The Astute Health Study Group. “Depression and Anxiety Outcomes Associated with Failed Assisted Reproductive Technologies: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Edited by Cornelis B Lambalk. PLOS ONE 11, no. 11 (November 11, 2016): e0165805. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165805.
Mitra, Sayani, Silke Schicktanz, and Tulsi Patel, eds. Cross-Cultural Comparisons on Surrogacy and Egg Donation: Interdisciplinary Perspectives from India, Germany and Israel. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
“MK Beri Status Hukum Anak Di Luar Nikah,” February 17, 2012. https://www.mkri.id/index.php?page=web.Berita&id=6507&menu=2.
Moleong, Lexy J. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya, 2021.
Murphy, Kent. “The Traditional View of Public Policy and Ordre Public in Private International Law.” Georgia Journal of International & Comparative Law 11, no. 3 (1981). https://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/gjicl/vol11/iss3/9/.
Muttaqin, Husnul. “Menuju Sosiologi Profetik.” Jurnal Sosiologi Reflektif 10, no. 1 (September 9, 2016): 219. https://doi.org/10.14421/jsr.v10i1.1147.
Pande, Amrita. “Commercial Surrogacy in India: Manufacturing a Perfect Mother‐Worker.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 35, no. 4 (June 2010): 969–92. https://doi.org/10.1086/651043.
———. “Not an ‘Angel’, Not a ‘Whore’: Surrogates as ‘Dirty’ Workers in India.” Indian Journal of Gender Studies 16, no. 2 (June 2009): 141–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/097152150901600201.
Patel, Ansha, Pratap Kumar, and P. S. V. N. Sharma. “‘The Miracle Mothers and Marvelous Babies’: Psychosocial Aspects of Surrogacy – A Narrative Review.” Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences 13, no. 2 (2020): 89. https://doi.org/10.4103/jhrs.JHRS_33_20.
Patel, NayanaHitesh, YuvrajDigvijaysingh Jadeja, HarshaKarsan Bhadarka, MolinaNiket Patel, NiketHitesh Patel, and NilofarRahematkhan Sodagar. “Insight into Different Aspects of Surrogacy Practices.” Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences 11, no. 3 (2018): 212. https://doi.org/10.4103/jhrs.JHRS_138_17.
Permadi, Wiryawan. Hanya 7 Hari Memahami Fertilisasi In Vitro. Bandung: Refika Aditama, 2008.
Petersen, Kerry. “Cross Border Commercial Surrogacy: A Global Patchwork of Inconsistency and Confusion.” In Law and Global Health, edited by Michael Freeman, Sarah Hawkes, and Belinda Bennett, 209–22. Oxford University Press, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199688999.003.0014.
Prodjodikoro, Wirjono. Asas-Asas Hukum Perdata Internasional. Bandung: Sumur, 1992.
Purdy, Laura M. “Surrogate Mothering: Exploitation or Empowerment.” Bioethics 3, no. 1 (January 1989): 18–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.1989.tb00324.x.
Qaradawi, Yusuf, As’ad Yasin, and Abdul Hayyie Kattani. Fatwa-fatwa Kontemporer Jilid 3. 3rd ed. Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 2001.
Regulation of Ministry of Health No. 43 on Providing Assisted on Reproductive Services or Pregnancy with other than Natural Means (2015).
Riddle, M. P. “The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Conceptualizing Reproductive Loss: Clinical Implications of the Narratives of Gestational Surrogates in the USA.” Journal of Religion and Health 60, no. 1 (February 2021): 282–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-01076-7.
Sandel, Michael J. What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limit of Market. London New York, New York Ontario: Penguin Books, 2013.
Sanjaya, Umar Haris, and Aunur Rahim Faqih. Hukum Perkawinan Islam Di Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Gama Media, 2017.
Santoso, Lukman. “Towards Religiosity-Based Legal Science: Critical-Constructive Prophetic Law on Positivism Paradigm.” Prophetic Law Review 2, no. 2 (December 1, 2020). https://doi.org/10.20885/PLR.vol2.iss2.art6.
Saxena, Pikee, Archana Mishra, and Sonia Malik. “Surrogacy: Ethical and Legal Issues.” Indian Journal of Community Medicine 37, no. 4 (2012): 211. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-0218.103466.
“Sewa Rahim Di Indonesia Dilakukan Diam-Diam,” n.d. https://health.detik.com/ibu-dan-anak/d-1370505/sewa-rahim-di-indonesia-dilakukan-diam-diam.
Shalev, Carmel. “Birth Power: The Case for Surrogacy.” Columbia Law Review 90, no. 4 (May 1990): 1177. https://doi.org/10.2307/1122931.
Shenfield, F., G. Pennings, J. Cohen, P. Devroey, G. De Wert, and B. Tarlatzis. “ESHRE Task Force on Ethics and Law 10: Surrogacy.” Human Reproduction 20, no. 10 (October 1, 2005): 2705–7. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dei147.
Singer, Peter, and Deane Wells. Making Babies: The New Science and Ethics of Conception. New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1985.
Soekanto, Soerjono. Pengantar Penelitian Hukum. 2nd ed. Jakarta: Penerbit Universitas Indonesia (UI-Press), 2006.
Soekanto, Soerjono, and Sri Mamudji. Penelitian Hukum Normatif. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2015.
Surrogate.com. “Surrogacy Laws by State,” April 8, 2016. https://surrogate.com/intended-parents/surrogacy-laws-and-legal-information/surrogacy-laws-by-state/.
Swain, Margaret E., and Colin James Rogerson. “Addressing Legal Issues in Cross-Border Gestational Surrogacy: Current Topics and Trends.” Fertility and Sterility 115, no. 2 (February 2021): 268–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2020.11.031.
Syamsudin, M., ed. Ilmu Hukum Profetik: Gagasan Awal, Landasan Kefilsafatan, Dan Kemungkinan Pengembangannya Di Era Postmodern. 1st ed. Yogyakarta: Pusat Studi Hukum (PSH) FH UII kerja sama dengan FH UII Press, 2013.
Syarifuddin, Amir. Hukum Perkawinan Islam Di Indonesia: Antara Fiqh Munakahat Dan Undang-Undang Perkawinan. 1st ed. Jakarta: Kencana, 2009.
The Constitutional Court Decision No. 46/PUU-VIII/2010 (2012).
Van Zyl, L. “Interpretations, Perspectives and Intentions in Surrogate Motherhood.” Journal of Medical Ethics 26, no. 5 (October 1, 2000): 404–9. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.26.5.404.
Veiligheid, Ministerie van Justitie en. “Legislative Surrogacy Regulations.” Nieuwsbericht. Ministerie van Algemene Zaken, June 30, 2023. https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2023/06/30/legislative-surrogacy-regulations.
Vincent, C. Paul, and Alene D. Aftandilian. “Liberation or Exploitation: Commercial Surrogacy and the Indian Surrogate.” Suffolk Transnational Law Review 36 (2013): 671. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141276959.
Vishvendu, Jaipuriar. “Womb Rental Ends in Death - Telegraph India,” July 28, 2014. https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/womb-rental-ends-in-death/cid/164231.
Wasman, and Wardah Nuroniyah. Hukum Perkawinan Islam di Indonesia: Perbandingan Fiqih dan Hukum Positif. 1st ed. Yogyakarta: Teras, 2011.
Wignjosoebroto, Soetandyo. Hukum: Konsep Dan Metode. 1st ed. Malang: Setara Press, 2013.
World Wide Surrogacy Specialists. “The History of Surrogacy: A Legal Timeline,” April 12, 2021. https://www.worldwidesurrogacy.org/blog/the-history-of-surrogacy-a-legal-timeline.
Yaswirman. Hukum Keluarga: Karakteristik Dan Prospek Doktrin Islam Dan Adat Dalam Masyarakat Matrilineal Minangkabau. 1st ed. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2011.
Zahrowati. “Bayi Tabung (Fertilisasi In Vitro) Dengan Menggunakan Sperma Donor dan Rahim Sewaan (Surrogate Mother) dalam Perspektif Hukum Perdata.” Halu Oleo Law Review 1, no. 2 (March 14, 2018): 196. https://doi.org/10.33561/holrev.v1i2.3642.