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Abstract
Press freedom in Indonesia intersects closely with the doctrine of popular sovereignty, yet its boundaries vis-à-vis state authority remain contested. Adopting a normative-juridical methodology with qualitative descriptive analysis, the research reviews constitutional provisions, statutes, judicial decisions, and scholarly commentary. Findings show that Indonesia’s normative commitment to a free press resonates with Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s concept of popular sovereignty, under which the state may regulate public life without extinguishing civil liberty. Second, despite guarantees in Article 28F of the 1945 Constitution and Law No. 40 of 1999 on the Press, journalists face political intimidation, media-ownership concentration, and insufficient legal protection and conditions that chill independent reporting. Consequently, press freedom functions as a barometer of popular sovereignty; an informed populace can exercise self-government only when information circulates freely, objectively, and responsibly. To bridge the gap between constitutional promise and daily practice, the article recommends amending the Press Law to strengthen newsroom independence, define interference penalties, and expand the Press Council’s authority to enforce ethical standards and safeguard journalists. Such reforms are essential to balancing state regulation with citizens’ right to reliable information and reinforcing Indonesia’s status as a constitutional democracy rooted in the people's sovereignty.
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References
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Andri, Andi. “Kemerdekaan Dan Kedaulatan Rakyat Dalam Perspektif Mohammad Hatta Dan Islam.” Jurnal Manthiq 2, no. 2 (November 2017). http://dx.doi.org/10.29300/mtq.v2i2.668.
Arneson, Richard J. “Locke and the Liberal Tradition.” In A Companion to Locke, edited by Matthew Stuart, 1st ed., 528–45. Wiley, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118328705.ch27.
Arsyafira, Nabillla, Fitra Arsil, and Ryan Muthiara Wasti. “A Normative Analysis of the Limitation of Human Rights: Assessing the Constitutionality of Press Freedom in Indonesia.” In Challenges of Law and Governance in Indonesia in the Disruptive Era II, edited by Heru Susetyo, Qurrata Ayuni, and Universitas Indonesia, 3–17. Asian Political, Economic and Social Issues. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 2021. https://scholar.ui.ac.id/en/publications/a-normative-analysis-of-the-limitation-of-human-rights-assessing-.
Bari, M. Ehteshamul, and Safia Naz. “Criminalisation of Media Reporting on the Government Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh: Freedom of Press in Peril.” In Human Rights During the COVID-19 Pandemic, edited by M. Ehteshamul Bari and Uday Shankar, 89–99. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1480-3_6.
Baume, Sandrine. “Hans Kelsen and the Requirement of Self-Determination: How the Austrian Jurist Takes Inspiration from Rousseau and How He Emancipates Himself from the Swiss Philosopher.” In Hans Kelsen and the Natural Law Tradition, edited by Peter Langford, Ian Bryan, and John McGarry, 188–214. Brill, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004390393_007.
Carey, Alex, and Andrew Lohrey. Taking the Risk Out of Democracy: Corporate Propaganda Versus Freedom and Liberty. 1st ed. History of Communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997. https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p066160.
De Jesus, Melinda Quintos. “Responsible Media, Democracy, and Inclusive Growth.” In Building Inclusive Democracies in ASEAN, by Ronald U Mendoza, Edsel L Beja Jr., Julio C Teehankee, Antonio G M La Viña, and Maria Fe Villamejor-Mendoza, 405–16. World Scientific, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789813236493_0024.
Decree of the People’s Consultative Assembly of Republic of Indonesia No. XVII/MPR/1998 on Human Rights (n.d.).
Diniyanto, Ayon. “Penundaan Pemilihan Umum Di Negara Hukum: Kajian Demokrasi Konstitusional.” Jurnal Negara Hukum 13, no. 2 (November 2022): 229–48. https://doi.org/10.22212/jnh.v13i2.3365.
Drushel, Bruce E. “Politically (In) Corrected: Electronic Media Self-Censorship Since the 9/11 Attacks.” In Language, Symbols, and the Media, edited by Robert E Denton, 1st ed., 240. New York: Routledge, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203787601.
Harahap, Muhammad Syahnan. “Kemerdekaan Pers Pada Orde Reformasi.” Jurnal Ilmiah Hukum Dirgantara 9, no. 2 (October 9, 2019). https://doi.org/10.35968/jh.v9i2.358.
———. “Tinjauan Hukum Peran Pers Guna Menegakkan Hak Asasi Manusia Di Indonesia.” Jurnal Ilmiah Hukum Dirgantara 4, no. 1 (September 2013). https://doi.org/10.35968/jh.v4i1.85.
Heide, Dai, and Evan Tiffany, eds. The Idea of Freedom: New Essays on the Kantian Theory of Freedom. 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University PressOxford, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198860563.001.0001.
Held, David. Demokrasi dan Tatanan Global: Dari Negara Modern Hingga Pemerintahan Kosmopolitan. Translated by Damanhuri. 1st ed. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2004. https://books.google.com/books/about/Demokrasi_tatanan_global.html?id=DY6atQEACAAJ.
Hommes, Hendrik van Eikema. “Grotius on Natural and International Law.” In Grotius and Law, edited by Larry May and Emily McGill, 1st ed., 457–67. London: Routledge, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315093376.
Hussein, Waleed Kathem and وليد العاصمي. “Constitutional and Criminal Basis for Restrictions on Media Freedom.” Res Militaris 12, no. 2 (2022): 6653–64. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17853.95206.
Jurdi, Fajlurrahman. Hukum Tata Negara Indonesia. 1st ed. Jakarta: Kencana, 2019.
Katmada, Aikaterini, Garyfallia Katsavounidou, and Christina Kakderi. “Platform Urbanism for Sustainability.” In Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions, edited by Norbert A. Streitz and Shin’ichi Konomi, 35–52. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34609-5_3.
Law No. 11 of 1966 on Basic Provisions of the Press (n.d.).
Law No. 40 of 1999 on the Press (n.d.).
Lis, Wojciech. “Legal Comparison of Freedom of Expression and Freedom of the Press in the Republic of Armenia and in the Republic of Poland.” Studia Iuridica Lublinensia 29, no. 1 (March 29, 2020): 145. https://doi.org/10.17951/sil.2020.29.1.145-159.
Locke, John. “Toleration and Government.” In Ideals and Ideologies, by Terence Ball, Richard Dagger, and Daniel I. O’Neill, 87–101, 11th ed. New York: Routledge, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429286827-17.
Lopez, George A. “Mobilizing Economic Sanctions for Preventing Mass Atrocities: From Targeting Dictators to Enablers.” In Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, edited by Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis, and Alex Zucker, 1st ed., 379–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316154632.018.
Makarim, Edmon, Muhammad Brata, and Nabilla Arsyafira. “Limitation of Rights as a Manifestation of Duties and Responsibilities Pertaining to the Freedom Expression in Digital Communications.” Indonesia Law Review 9, no. 3 (December 31, 2019): 278–95. https://doi.org/10.15742/ilrev.v9n3.586.
Manan, Bagir. Politik Publik Pers. 1st ed. Jakarta: Dewan Pers, 2012.
Maurice, Luis R. “Freedom of the Press: The Philippine Experience.” In Press Laws and Systems in ASEAN States, edited by Abdul Razak, 1st ed., 83–84. Jakarta: The Confederation of ASEAN Journalists, The Garuda Metropolitan Press, 1985.
McKay, Spencer. “Plebiscites, Referendums, and Ballot Initiatives as Institutions of Popular Sovereignty: Rousseau’s Influence on Competing Theories of Popular-Vote Processes.” The Review of Politics 85, no. 1 (2023): 23–47. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034670522000912.
McMahon, Christopher. “Rousseau’s General Will and the Will of All: A Present-Day Perspective.” The Journal of Ethics, March 28, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10892-025-09517-9.
Ossowska-Salamonowicz, Dobrochna. “Public and Social Interest in Journalistic Activity.” Archiwum Filozofii Prawa i Filozofii Społecznej, October 1, 2020, 118–26. https://doi.org/10.36280/AFPiFS.2020.3.118.
Park, Jihyun and Dodik Setiawan Nur Heriyanto. (2022). In Favor Of An Immigration Data Protection Law In Indonesia And Its Utilization For Contact Tracing. Prophetic Law Review, 4(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.20885/PLR.vol4.iss1.art1
Pember, Don R., and Clay Calvert. Mass Media Law. 2005th–2006th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2005. https://www.amazon.com/Mass-Media-2005-2006-Text/dp/0072879289.
Rikki Dean. “Participatory Governance in the Digital Age: From Input to Oversight.” International Journal of Communication 17 (2023): 3562–81.
Sahputra, Dedi. “Implementasi Hukum Pers Di Sumatera Utara.” Jurnal Penelitian Hukum De Jure 20, no. 2 (June 12, 2020): 259. https://doi.org/10.30641/dejure.2020.V20.259-274.
Simon, Rick. “Media, Myth and Reality in Russia’s State-Managed Democracy.” Parliamentary Affairs 57, no. 1 (January 1, 2004): 169–84. https://doi.org/10.1093/pa/gsh014.
Sularto, St. Syukur Tiada Akhir: Jejak Langkah Jakob Oetama. Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kompas, 2011. https://ebooks.gramedia.com/id/buku/syukur-tiada-akhir-jejak-langkah-jakob-oetama.
Syafriadi. Demokrasi Dan Kebebasan Pers. Jakarta: Bina Karya (BIKA), 2023. https://repository.uir.ac.id/22249/.
———. Hukum Pers Dalam Ketatanegaraan Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Suluh Media, 2017.
———. “Undang-Undang Cipta Kerja Pasca Revisi Kedua Undang-Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2011.” Jurnal Hukum Ius Quia Iustum 30, no. 2 (May 1, 2023): 277–99. https://doi.org/10.20885/iustum.vol30.iss2.art3.
Utomo, Laksanto. “Criminalizing the Freedom of Expression by State during COVID-19 Pandemic in Indonesia.” International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences 16, no. 2 (July 2021): 415–25. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4756085.
Varden, Helga. “Immanuel Kant – Justice as Freedom.” In Philosophy of Justice, edited by Guttorm Fløistad, 12:213–37. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9175-5_13.
Voges, Stefan Obadja. “Kemerdekaan Pers Dalam Perspektif Hukum Pers Indonesia.” Lex et Societatis 2, no. 9 (December 2014): 46–53. https://doi.org/10.35796/les.v2i9.6386.
References
Andenas, Mads, Duncan Fairgrieve, Jean-Paul Costa, and Patrick Titiun, eds. “The United Kingdom, France and the European Convention on Human Rights.” In Tom Bingham and the Transformation of the Law: A Liber Amicorum, 209–20. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566181.001.0001.
Andri, Andi. “Kemerdekaan Dan Kedaulatan Rakyat Dalam Perspektif Mohammad Hatta Dan Islam.” Jurnal Manthiq 2, no. 2 (November 2017). http://dx.doi.org/10.29300/mtq.v2i2.668.
Arneson, Richard J. “Locke and the Liberal Tradition.” In A Companion to Locke, edited by Matthew Stuart, 1st ed., 528–45. Wiley, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118328705.ch27.
Arsyafira, Nabillla, Fitra Arsil, and Ryan Muthiara Wasti. “A Normative Analysis of the Limitation of Human Rights: Assessing the Constitutionality of Press Freedom in Indonesia.” In Challenges of Law and Governance in Indonesia in the Disruptive Era II, edited by Heru Susetyo, Qurrata Ayuni, and Universitas Indonesia, 3–17. Asian Political, Economic and Social Issues. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 2021. https://scholar.ui.ac.id/en/publications/a-normative-analysis-of-the-limitation-of-human-rights-assessing-.
Bari, M. Ehteshamul, and Safia Naz. “Criminalisation of Media Reporting on the Government Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh: Freedom of Press in Peril.” In Human Rights During the COVID-19 Pandemic, edited by M. Ehteshamul Bari and Uday Shankar, 89–99. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1480-3_6.
Baume, Sandrine. “Hans Kelsen and the Requirement of Self-Determination: How the Austrian Jurist Takes Inspiration from Rousseau and How He Emancipates Himself from the Swiss Philosopher.” In Hans Kelsen and the Natural Law Tradition, edited by Peter Langford, Ian Bryan, and John McGarry, 188–214. Brill, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004390393_007.
Carey, Alex, and Andrew Lohrey. Taking the Risk Out of Democracy: Corporate Propaganda Versus Freedom and Liberty. 1st ed. History of Communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997. https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p066160.
De Jesus, Melinda Quintos. “Responsible Media, Democracy, and Inclusive Growth.” In Building Inclusive Democracies in ASEAN, by Ronald U Mendoza, Edsel L Beja Jr., Julio C Teehankee, Antonio G M La Viña, and Maria Fe Villamejor-Mendoza, 405–16. World Scientific, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789813236493_0024.
Decree of the People’s Consultative Assembly of Republic of Indonesia No. XVII/MPR/1998 on Human Rights (n.d.).
Diniyanto, Ayon. “Penundaan Pemilihan Umum Di Negara Hukum: Kajian Demokrasi Konstitusional.” Jurnal Negara Hukum 13, no. 2 (November 2022): 229–48. https://doi.org/10.22212/jnh.v13i2.3365.
Drushel, Bruce E. “Politically (In) Corrected: Electronic Media Self-Censorship Since the 9/11 Attacks.” In Language, Symbols, and the Media, edited by Robert E Denton, 1st ed., 240. New York: Routledge, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203787601.
Harahap, Muhammad Syahnan. “Kemerdekaan Pers Pada Orde Reformasi.” Jurnal Ilmiah Hukum Dirgantara 9, no. 2 (October 9, 2019). https://doi.org/10.35968/jh.v9i2.358.
———. “Tinjauan Hukum Peran Pers Guna Menegakkan Hak Asasi Manusia Di Indonesia.” Jurnal Ilmiah Hukum Dirgantara 4, no. 1 (September 2013). https://doi.org/10.35968/jh.v4i1.85.
Heide, Dai, and Evan Tiffany, eds. The Idea of Freedom: New Essays on the Kantian Theory of Freedom. 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University PressOxford, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198860563.001.0001.
Held, David. Demokrasi dan Tatanan Global: Dari Negara Modern Hingga Pemerintahan Kosmopolitan. Translated by Damanhuri. 1st ed. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2004. https://books.google.com/books/about/Demokrasi_tatanan_global.html?id=DY6atQEACAAJ.
Hommes, Hendrik van Eikema. “Grotius on Natural and International Law.” In Grotius and Law, edited by Larry May and Emily McGill, 1st ed., 457–67. London: Routledge, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315093376.
Hussein, Waleed Kathem and وليد العاصمي. “Constitutional and Criminal Basis for Restrictions on Media Freedom.” Res Militaris 12, no. 2 (2022): 6653–64. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17853.95206.
Jurdi, Fajlurrahman. Hukum Tata Negara Indonesia. 1st ed. Jakarta: Kencana, 2019.
Katmada, Aikaterini, Garyfallia Katsavounidou, and Christina Kakderi. “Platform Urbanism for Sustainability.” In Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions, edited by Norbert A. Streitz and Shin’ichi Konomi, 35–52. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34609-5_3.
Law No. 11 of 1966 on Basic Provisions of the Press (n.d.).
Law No. 40 of 1999 on the Press (n.d.).
Lis, Wojciech. “Legal Comparison of Freedom of Expression and Freedom of the Press in the Republic of Armenia and in the Republic of Poland.” Studia Iuridica Lublinensia 29, no. 1 (March 29, 2020): 145. https://doi.org/10.17951/sil.2020.29.1.145-159.
Locke, John. “Toleration and Government.” In Ideals and Ideologies, by Terence Ball, Richard Dagger, and Daniel I. O’Neill, 87–101, 11th ed. New York: Routledge, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429286827-17.
Lopez, George A. “Mobilizing Economic Sanctions for Preventing Mass Atrocities: From Targeting Dictators to Enablers.” In Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, edited by Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis, and Alex Zucker, 1st ed., 379–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316154632.018.
Makarim, Edmon, Muhammad Brata, and Nabilla Arsyafira. “Limitation of Rights as a Manifestation of Duties and Responsibilities Pertaining to the Freedom Expression in Digital Communications.” Indonesia Law Review 9, no. 3 (December 31, 2019): 278–95. https://doi.org/10.15742/ilrev.v9n3.586.
Manan, Bagir. Politik Publik Pers. 1st ed. Jakarta: Dewan Pers, 2012.
Maurice, Luis R. “Freedom of the Press: The Philippine Experience.” In Press Laws and Systems in ASEAN States, edited by Abdul Razak, 1st ed., 83–84. Jakarta: The Confederation of ASEAN Journalists, The Garuda Metropolitan Press, 1985.
McKay, Spencer. “Plebiscites, Referendums, and Ballot Initiatives as Institutions of Popular Sovereignty: Rousseau’s Influence on Competing Theories of Popular-Vote Processes.” The Review of Politics 85, no. 1 (2023): 23–47. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034670522000912.
McMahon, Christopher. “Rousseau’s General Will and the Will of All: A Present-Day Perspective.” The Journal of Ethics, March 28, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10892-025-09517-9.
Ossowska-Salamonowicz, Dobrochna. “Public and Social Interest in Journalistic Activity.” Archiwum Filozofii Prawa i Filozofii Społecznej, October 1, 2020, 118–26. https://doi.org/10.36280/AFPiFS.2020.3.118.
Park, Jihyun and Dodik Setiawan Nur Heriyanto. (2022). In Favor Of An Immigration Data Protection Law In Indonesia And Its Utilization For Contact Tracing. Prophetic Law Review, 4(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.20885/PLR.vol4.iss1.art1
Pember, Don R., and Clay Calvert. Mass Media Law. 2005th–2006th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2005. https://www.amazon.com/Mass-Media-2005-2006-Text/dp/0072879289.
Rikki Dean. “Participatory Governance in the Digital Age: From Input to Oversight.” International Journal of Communication 17 (2023): 3562–81.
Sahputra, Dedi. “Implementasi Hukum Pers Di Sumatera Utara.” Jurnal Penelitian Hukum De Jure 20, no. 2 (June 12, 2020): 259. https://doi.org/10.30641/dejure.2020.V20.259-274.
Simon, Rick. “Media, Myth and Reality in Russia’s State-Managed Democracy.” Parliamentary Affairs 57, no. 1 (January 1, 2004): 169–84. https://doi.org/10.1093/pa/gsh014.
Sularto, St. Syukur Tiada Akhir: Jejak Langkah Jakob Oetama. Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kompas, 2011. https://ebooks.gramedia.com/id/buku/syukur-tiada-akhir-jejak-langkah-jakob-oetama.
Syafriadi. Demokrasi Dan Kebebasan Pers. Jakarta: Bina Karya (BIKA), 2023. https://repository.uir.ac.id/22249/.
———. Hukum Pers Dalam Ketatanegaraan Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Suluh Media, 2017.
———. “Undang-Undang Cipta Kerja Pasca Revisi Kedua Undang-Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2011.” Jurnal Hukum Ius Quia Iustum 30, no. 2 (May 1, 2023): 277–99. https://doi.org/10.20885/iustum.vol30.iss2.art3.
Utomo, Laksanto. “Criminalizing the Freedom of Expression by State during COVID-19 Pandemic in Indonesia.” International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences 16, no. 2 (July 2021): 415–25. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4756085.
Varden, Helga. “Immanuel Kant – Justice as Freedom.” In Philosophy of Justice, edited by Guttorm Fløistad, 12:213–37. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9175-5_13.
Voges, Stefan Obadja. “Kemerdekaan Pers Dalam Perspektif Hukum Pers Indonesia.” Lex et Societatis 2, no. 9 (December 2014): 46–53. https://doi.org/10.35796/les.v2i9.6386.