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Abstract
This historiographical study investigates the role of Sufism in the development and continuity of Islam among Hui Muslims in China from the 7th to the 19th centuries. Using textual and historical analysis of Chinese chronicles, travel narratives, and Islamic educational materials, the study traces the institutional and doctrinal influence of Sufi thought across major Chinese dynasties. The study demonstrates that Sufism provided essential spiritual, intellectual, and organizational frameworks that enabled Hui Muslims to maintain their religious identity despite cultural assimilation, political pressure, and periods of severe persecution. During the Yuan dynasty, Sufi practices first gained institutional footing through the establishment of lodges (zawiya) in major cities. In the Ming period, Sufism's intellectual tradition became integrated into the innovative Jingtang Jiaoyu (scripture hall education) system, which preserved Islamic knowledge through traditional Chinese educational methods. The Qing dynasty witnessed the full institutionalization of Sufism through the emergence of formal Menhuan (Sufi orders)—including Khufiyya, Jahriyya, Qadiriyya, and Kubrawiyya—that established extensive networks of spiritual authority across China. Throughout these historical periods, Sufism served as a vital channel for the development of Islam among Hui Muslims in China, strengthening their faith and preserving their religious identity by providing crucial spiritual guidance and support.
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Copyright (c) 2025 Jianjun Mai
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References
- Between the 7th and 19th centuries, Sufism played a foundational role in the development, transmission, and continuity of Islam among Hui Muslim communities in China. From its earliest presence via maritime and overland routes, Sufi doctrines and institutions progressively embedded themselves within diverse Chinese socio-political contexts. During the Yuan dynasty, Sufism gained institutional recognition through the establishment of lodges and the documented influence of charismatic Sufi figures. In the Ming dynasty, despite intense state-imposed isolation and cultural assimilation policies, Sufi metaphysics found new life through the development of Jingtang Jiaoyu (scripture hall education). In the Qing period, Sufism underwent further institutional consolidation through the emergence of formal Sufi orders (Menhuan), which localized spiritual authority and enabled religious continuity under conditions of marginalization and repression. This study contributes to the broader field of Islamic studies by highlighting how Sufism functioned not merely as a mystical tradition but as a vehicle for Islam's survival, adaptation, and localization in a non-Muslim majority context. It adds to the growing body of historiography that explores Islam beyond the Arab heartlands, demonstrating how Islamic thought and practice were reshaped through their encounter with Chinese civilization. The experience of Hui Muslims illustrates that Islamic tradition, far from being monolithic, is highly flexible and contextually responsive, particularly through the prism of Sufism. On a global level, the Chinese case provides an important example of how Islamic spirituality and communal identity can be preserved and revitalized across linguistic, cultural, and political boundaries. It shows that Sufi networks, with their emphasis on ethical discipline, spiritual intimacy, and institutional resilience, played a critical role in embedding Islam within pluralistic societies. As Islamic communities today navigate challenges of globalization, identity, and minority existence, the historical trajectory of Sufism in China offers enduring insights into the possibilities of religious continuity, adaptation, and renewal.
References
Between the 7th and 19th centuries, Sufism played a foundational role in the development, transmission, and continuity of Islam among Hui Muslim communities in China. From its earliest presence via maritime and overland routes, Sufi doctrines and institutions progressively embedded themselves within diverse Chinese socio-political contexts. During the Yuan dynasty, Sufism gained institutional recognition through the establishment of lodges and the documented influence of charismatic Sufi figures. In the Ming dynasty, despite intense state-imposed isolation and cultural assimilation policies, Sufi metaphysics found new life through the development of Jingtang Jiaoyu (scripture hall education). In the Qing period, Sufism underwent further institutional consolidation through the emergence of formal Sufi orders (Menhuan), which localized spiritual authority and enabled religious continuity under conditions of marginalization and repression. This study contributes to the broader field of Islamic studies by highlighting how Sufism functioned not merely as a mystical tradition but as a vehicle for Islam's survival, adaptation, and localization in a non-Muslim majority context. It adds to the growing body of historiography that explores Islam beyond the Arab heartlands, demonstrating how Islamic thought and practice were reshaped through their encounter with Chinese civilization. The experience of Hui Muslims illustrates that Islamic tradition, far from being monolithic, is highly flexible and contextually responsive, particularly through the prism of Sufism. On a global level, the Chinese case provides an important example of how Islamic spirituality and communal identity can be preserved and revitalized across linguistic, cultural, and political boundaries. It shows that Sufi networks, with their emphasis on ethical discipline, spiritual intimacy, and institutional resilience, played a critical role in embedding Islam within pluralistic societies. As Islamic communities today navigate challenges of globalization, identity, and minority existence, the historical trajectory of Sufism in China offers enduring insights into the possibilities of religious continuity, adaptation, and renewal.