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This study examined the efficacy of human-centered foreign and security policies in the management of insecurity in Nigeria. This highlights the limitations inherent to the dominant state-centric security mechanism in Nigeria. The study argues that the proliferation of traditional threats manifesting in the Boko Haram insurgency, Biafra separatist agitation, Niger Delta militancy, and Fulani herdsmen uprising were attributed mainly to the government’s disregard for socioeconomic gaps and political contexts that predispose people to aggressive behavior. Instead of addressing waves of insecurity, military operations complicate and widen their scope. The study, therefore, calls for a review of the existing security architecture and foreign policy objectives of the state in line with the principles of human security. Understanding the context of fueling and sustaining insecurity as well as evolving appropriate human-centric security and foreign policy measures are key to managing violent conflicts in Nigeria. Most importantly, appropriate constitutional provisions relating to human security should be strictly implemented, while professionals should be properly engaged in the task of developing and implementing foreign security policies in Nigeria.
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References
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Akiyama, N. (2004). Human security at the crossroad: Human security in the Japanese foreign policy context. IPSHU English Research Report Series No.19. https://heiwa.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/Pub/E19/chap12.pdf
Alkire, S. (2003). A conceptual framework for human security. Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity, University of Oxford.
Aluko, O. (1981). Essays on Nigerian foreign policy. George Allen & Unwin.
Amnesty International. (2016). Nigeria: At least 150 peaceful pro-Biafra activists killed in chilling crackdown. Amnesty International. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/11/peaceful-pro-biafra-activists-killed-in-chilling-crackdown/
Archibong, B. (2018). Historical origins of persistent inequality in Nigeria. Oxford Development Studies, 46(3), 325–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2017.1416072
Arowosegbe, J. O. (2009). Violence and national development in Nigeria: The political economy of youth restiveness in the Niger Delta. Review of African Political Economy, 36(122), 575–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/03056240903346178
Ate, B. E. (2012). Nigeria’s relations with its immediate neighbours: A security-political analysis. In B. E. Ate & B. Akinterinwa (Eds.), Cross-border armed banditry in the North East: Issues in national security and Nigeria’s relations with its immediate neighbours. Nigerian Institute of International Affairs.
Bala, S., & Ouédraogo, E. (2018). National security strategy development: Nigeria case study. Africa Center for Strategic Studies. https://africacenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/2019-04-NSSD-Case-Study-Nigeria-EN.pdf
Bello-Schünemann, J., & Porter, A. (2018). Building the future infrastructure in Nigeria until 2040. Institute for Security Studies. https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/war-21.pdf
Bloom, L. B. (2022, April 14). Ranked: The 20 most dangerous places to live [HTML]. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurabegleybloom/2019/09/05/20-most-dangerous-places-to-live-2019/
Callamard, A. (2019). End of visit statement of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions on her visit to Nigeria [A Report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur for Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, September 2, 2019]. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=24934&LangID=E
Chigozie, C. F., & Ituma, O. S. (2015). Nigerian peacekeeping operations revisited. Singaporean Journal of Business Economics and Management Studies, 4(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.12816/0014527
Council on Foreign Relations. (2019). Boko Haram in Nigeria: Recent development. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/interactive/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/boko-haram-nigeria.
Dattani, S., Spooner, F., Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2023). Causes of death. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/causes-of-death
DuMont, M. (2019). Elements of national security strategy. Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/content-series/strategy-consortium/elements-of-national-security-strategy/
Dupuy, K., & Rustad, S. A. (2018). Trends in armed conflict, 1946–2017 (Conflict Trends 5). Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO). https://www.prio.org/publications/11181
Edström, B. (2003). Japan’s foreign policy and human security. Japan Forum, 15(2), 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/0955580032000108397
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm
Gurr, T. (2000). Peoples versus states: Minorities at risk in the new century. Institute of Peace Press.
Human Right Watch. (2017). Nigeria: Events of 2017. Human Rights Watch Publication. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/country-chapters/nigeria
Ibaba, I. S. (2011). Corruption, human-rights violation, and the interface with violence in the Niger Delta. Development in Practice, 21(2), 244–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2011.543278
Ilo, U. J., Jonathan-Ichaver, I., & Adamolekun, ’Yemi. (2019). The deadliest conflict you’ve never heard of: Nigeria’s cattle herders and farmers wage a resource war. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/nigeria/2019-01-23/deadliest-conflict-youve-never-heard
Institute for Economics & Peace. (2019). Global terrorism index 2019: Measuring the impact of terrorism. Institute for Economics & Peace. https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/GTI-2019web.pdf
International Crisis Group. (2018). Stopping Nigeria’s spiralling farmer-herder violence. International Crisis Group.
Kharas, H., Hamel, K., & Hofer, M. (2018). Rethinking global poverty reduction in 2019. Brooking Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2018/12/13/rethinking-global-poverty-reduction-in-2019
Kumar, V. (2019). Rajesh asked: What is comprehensive national security? How does it formulate a country’s national interest? Institute for Defence Studies and Analysis. https://idsa.in/askanexpert/comprehensive-national-security
Laczko, F., & Aghazarm, C. (2009). Introduction and overview: Enhancing the knowledge base. In F. Laczko & C. Aghazarm (Eds.), Migration, environment and climate change: Assessing the evidence. International Organization for Migration.
Merz, S., & Mack, A. (Eds.). (2012). Human security report 2012: Sexual violence, education, and war; Beyond the mainstream narrative. Simon Fraser University.
Moher, J. (2012, December 5). Canada’s human security agenda. Humanitarian Practice Network, 16, Article 16. https://odihpn.org/publication/canadas-human-security-agenda/
Morgenthau, H. J. (1948). Politics among nations: The struggle for power and peace. A.A. Knopf.
Muhammad, F., Abdulkareem, J. H., & Chowdhury, A. A. (2017). Major public health problems in Nigeria: A review. South East Asia Journal of Public Health, 7(1), 6–11. https://doi.org/10.3329/seajph.v7i1.34672
Nweke, A. (1986). The domestic structure and processes of Nigeria’s foreign policy. In G. Olusanya & R. Akindele (Eds.), The first twenty five years (pp. 33–58). University Press.
Okolie, A.-M. (2015). Fundamental issues in foreign policy making and implementation in Nigeria. In A.-M. Okolie (Ed.), Contemporary readings on Nigeria’s external relations: Issues, perspectives and challenges (pp. 3–20). Willyrose & Appleseed.
Okolie, A.-M., Nnamani, K. E., & Nwoke, I. S. (2019). Government defence expenditure and human security crises in Nigeria, 2005-2017. Studies in Politics and Society, 8(1 & 2), 1–30.
Olonade, O., Olawande, T. I., Alabi, O. J., & Imhonopi, D. (2019). Maternal mortality and maternal health care in Nigeria: Implications for socio-economic development. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 7(5), 849–855. https://doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2019.041
Onapajo, H., & Uzodike, U. O. (2012). Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria: Man, the state, and the international system. African Security Review, 21(3), 24–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2012.687693
ReliefWeb. (2015, January 7). Nigeria food security alert: January 7, 2015 [HTML]. https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/nigeria-food-security-alert-january-7-2015
Sahara Reporters. (2019). 91.8 Million Nigerians are Extremely Poor, says World Poverty Clock. Sahara Reporters. http://saharareporters.com/2019/06/05/918-million-nigerians-are-extremely-poor-says-world-poverty-clock
Sede, P. I., & Ohemeng, W. (2015). Socio-economic determinants of life expectancy in Nigeria (1980 – 2011). Health Economics Review, 5(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13561-014-0037-z
Sinclair, M. (1983). An analysis of Nigerian foreign policy: The evolution of political paranoia. South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA). https://coilink.org/20.500.12592/54q5z4
Trachsler, D. (2011). Human security: Genesis, debates, trends (CSS Analysis in Security Policy, No. 90). Center for Security Studies. https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/CSS-Analysis-90-EN.pdf
Transparency International. (2020). Corruption perception index 2019. Transparency International. https://www.transparency.org/cpi2019
United Nations. (2016). Human security handbook: An integrated approach for the realization of the Sustainable Development Goals and the priority areas of the international community and the United Nations system. United Nations. https://www.un.org/humansecurity/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/h2.pdf
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2017). UNICEF annual report 2017: Nigeria. United Nations Children’s Fund. https://www.unicef.org/about/annualreport/files/Nigeria_2017_COAR.pdf
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2018). More than 1,000 children in northeastern Nigeria abducted by Boko Haram since 2013. United Nations Children’s Fund. https://www.unicef.org/wca/press-releases/more-1000-children-northeastern-nigeria-abducted-boko-haram-2013
United Nations Development Progamme. (2019). Human development report 2019. Beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: Inequalities in human development in the 21st century. United Nations Development Progamme. https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2019
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2019). Statistics related to Nigerian refugees refer to those in three main asylum countries: Cameroon, Chad, and Niger. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/nigeriasituation#_ga=2.155809531.1973709748.1571844796-1590759838.1571844796.
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. (2019a). About OCHA Nigeria 2019. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. https://www.unocha.org/nigeria/about-ocha-nigeria
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. (2019b). About OCHA Nigeria. 2019. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. https://www.unocha.org/nigeria/about-ocha-nigeria
Wachuku, J. (Director). (1961, October 10). 1031st Meeting of General Assembly: 16th Session [Video recording]. UN Audiovisual Library. https://media.un.org/avlibrary/en/asset/d252/d2520097
References
Akindele, R. A., & Ate, B. E. (1986). Nigeria’s foreign policy, 1986-2000 AD: Background to and reflections on the views from Kuru. Africa Spectrum, 21(3), 363–370. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40174252
Akiyama, N. (2004). Human security at the crossroad: Human security in the Japanese foreign policy context. IPSHU English Research Report Series No.19. https://heiwa.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/Pub/E19/chap12.pdf
Alkire, S. (2003). A conceptual framework for human security. Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity, University of Oxford.
Aluko, O. (1981). Essays on Nigerian foreign policy. George Allen & Unwin.
Amnesty International. (2016). Nigeria: At least 150 peaceful pro-Biafra activists killed in chilling crackdown. Amnesty International. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/11/peaceful-pro-biafra-activists-killed-in-chilling-crackdown/
Archibong, B. (2018). Historical origins of persistent inequality in Nigeria. Oxford Development Studies, 46(3), 325–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2017.1416072
Arowosegbe, J. O. (2009). Violence and national development in Nigeria: The political economy of youth restiveness in the Niger Delta. Review of African Political Economy, 36(122), 575–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/03056240903346178
Ate, B. E. (2012). Nigeria’s relations with its immediate neighbours: A security-political analysis. In B. E. Ate & B. Akinterinwa (Eds.), Cross-border armed banditry in the North East: Issues in national security and Nigeria’s relations with its immediate neighbours. Nigerian Institute of International Affairs.
Bala, S., & Ouédraogo, E. (2018). National security strategy development: Nigeria case study. Africa Center for Strategic Studies. https://africacenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/2019-04-NSSD-Case-Study-Nigeria-EN.pdf
Bello-Schünemann, J., & Porter, A. (2018). Building the future infrastructure in Nigeria until 2040. Institute for Security Studies. https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/war-21.pdf
Bloom, L. B. (2022, April 14). Ranked: The 20 most dangerous places to live [HTML]. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurabegleybloom/2019/09/05/20-most-dangerous-places-to-live-2019/
Callamard, A. (2019). End of visit statement of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions on her visit to Nigeria [A Report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur for Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, September 2, 2019]. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=24934&LangID=E
Chigozie, C. F., & Ituma, O. S. (2015). Nigerian peacekeeping operations revisited. Singaporean Journal of Business Economics and Management Studies, 4(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.12816/0014527
Council on Foreign Relations. (2019). Boko Haram in Nigeria: Recent development. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/interactive/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/boko-haram-nigeria.
Dattani, S., Spooner, F., Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2023). Causes of death. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/causes-of-death
DuMont, M. (2019). Elements of national security strategy. Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/content-series/strategy-consortium/elements-of-national-security-strategy/
Dupuy, K., & Rustad, S. A. (2018). Trends in armed conflict, 1946–2017 (Conflict Trends 5). Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO). https://www.prio.org/publications/11181
Edström, B. (2003). Japan’s foreign policy and human security. Japan Forum, 15(2), 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/0955580032000108397
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm
Gurr, T. (2000). Peoples versus states: Minorities at risk in the new century. Institute of Peace Press.
Human Right Watch. (2017). Nigeria: Events of 2017. Human Rights Watch Publication. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/country-chapters/nigeria
Ibaba, I. S. (2011). Corruption, human-rights violation, and the interface with violence in the Niger Delta. Development in Practice, 21(2), 244–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2011.543278
Ilo, U. J., Jonathan-Ichaver, I., & Adamolekun, ’Yemi. (2019). The deadliest conflict you’ve never heard of: Nigeria’s cattle herders and farmers wage a resource war. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/nigeria/2019-01-23/deadliest-conflict-youve-never-heard
Institute for Economics & Peace. (2019). Global terrorism index 2019: Measuring the impact of terrorism. Institute for Economics & Peace. https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/GTI-2019web.pdf
International Crisis Group. (2018). Stopping Nigeria’s spiralling farmer-herder violence. International Crisis Group.
Kharas, H., Hamel, K., & Hofer, M. (2018). Rethinking global poverty reduction in 2019. Brooking Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2018/12/13/rethinking-global-poverty-reduction-in-2019
Kumar, V. (2019). Rajesh asked: What is comprehensive national security? How does it formulate a country’s national interest? Institute for Defence Studies and Analysis. https://idsa.in/askanexpert/comprehensive-national-security
Laczko, F., & Aghazarm, C. (2009). Introduction and overview: Enhancing the knowledge base. In F. Laczko & C. Aghazarm (Eds.), Migration, environment and climate change: Assessing the evidence. International Organization for Migration.
Merz, S., & Mack, A. (Eds.). (2012). Human security report 2012: Sexual violence, education, and war; Beyond the mainstream narrative. Simon Fraser University.
Moher, J. (2012, December 5). Canada’s human security agenda. Humanitarian Practice Network, 16, Article 16. https://odihpn.org/publication/canadas-human-security-agenda/
Morgenthau, H. J. (1948). Politics among nations: The struggle for power and peace. A.A. Knopf.
Muhammad, F., Abdulkareem, J. H., & Chowdhury, A. A. (2017). Major public health problems in Nigeria: A review. South East Asia Journal of Public Health, 7(1), 6–11. https://doi.org/10.3329/seajph.v7i1.34672
Nweke, A. (1986). The domestic structure and processes of Nigeria’s foreign policy. In G. Olusanya & R. Akindele (Eds.), The first twenty five years (pp. 33–58). University Press.
Okolie, A.-M. (2015). Fundamental issues in foreign policy making and implementation in Nigeria. In A.-M. Okolie (Ed.), Contemporary readings on Nigeria’s external relations: Issues, perspectives and challenges (pp. 3–20). Willyrose & Appleseed.
Okolie, A.-M., Nnamani, K. E., & Nwoke, I. S. (2019). Government defence expenditure and human security crises in Nigeria, 2005-2017. Studies in Politics and Society, 8(1 & 2), 1–30.
Olonade, O., Olawande, T. I., Alabi, O. J., & Imhonopi, D. (2019). Maternal mortality and maternal health care in Nigeria: Implications for socio-economic development. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 7(5), 849–855. https://doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2019.041
Onapajo, H., & Uzodike, U. O. (2012). Boko Haram terrorism in Nigeria: Man, the state, and the international system. African Security Review, 21(3), 24–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2012.687693
ReliefWeb. (2015, January 7). Nigeria food security alert: January 7, 2015 [HTML]. https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/nigeria-food-security-alert-january-7-2015
Sahara Reporters. (2019). 91.8 Million Nigerians are Extremely Poor, says World Poverty Clock. Sahara Reporters. http://saharareporters.com/2019/06/05/918-million-nigerians-are-extremely-poor-says-world-poverty-clock
Sede, P. I., & Ohemeng, W. (2015). Socio-economic determinants of life expectancy in Nigeria (1980 – 2011). Health Economics Review, 5(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13561-014-0037-z
Sinclair, M. (1983). An analysis of Nigerian foreign policy: The evolution of political paranoia. South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA). https://coilink.org/20.500.12592/54q5z4
Trachsler, D. (2011). Human security: Genesis, debates, trends (CSS Analysis in Security Policy, No. 90). Center for Security Studies. https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/CSS-Analysis-90-EN.pdf
Transparency International. (2020). Corruption perception index 2019. Transparency International. https://www.transparency.org/cpi2019
United Nations. (2016). Human security handbook: An integrated approach for the realization of the Sustainable Development Goals and the priority areas of the international community and the United Nations system. United Nations. https://www.un.org/humansecurity/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/h2.pdf
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2017). UNICEF annual report 2017: Nigeria. United Nations Children’s Fund. https://www.unicef.org/about/annualreport/files/Nigeria_2017_COAR.pdf
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2018). More than 1,000 children in northeastern Nigeria abducted by Boko Haram since 2013. United Nations Children’s Fund. https://www.unicef.org/wca/press-releases/more-1000-children-northeastern-nigeria-abducted-boko-haram-2013
United Nations Development Progamme. (2019). Human development report 2019. Beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: Inequalities in human development in the 21st century. United Nations Development Progamme. https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2019
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2019). Statistics related to Nigerian refugees refer to those in three main asylum countries: Cameroon, Chad, and Niger. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/nigeriasituation#_ga=2.155809531.1973709748.1571844796-1590759838.1571844796.
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. (2019a). About OCHA Nigeria 2019. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. https://www.unocha.org/nigeria/about-ocha-nigeria
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. (2019b). About OCHA Nigeria. 2019. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. https://www.unocha.org/nigeria/about-ocha-nigeria
Wachuku, J. (Director). (1961, October 10). 1031st Meeting of General Assembly: 16th Session [Video recording]. UN Audiovisual Library. https://media.un.org/avlibrary/en/asset/d252/d2520097