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INTRODUCTION
Enforced online teaching is slowly giving space to teacher fronted education, and we are going to examine how such a reversal as expected is not resulting in the total replacement of online language teaching. English language teachers continue to use online resources to teach selective reading skills (Jiang & Ren, 2021). However, the effects of the COVID-19-induced lockdown on the education sector are going to stay for a long time (Liu & Pei, 2021). One of its effects is hybridization of language teaching methodologies (Pei, 2021). Although hybrid teaching had existed even before the pandemic in some contexts used to teach language skills, but currently in some countries, teachers have an option for some sessions to use either online or offline means for teaching specific language skills (Pandey & Pabalkar, 2021). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers and students were trained in online ways of teaching and learning respectively (Almendingen et al., 2021; Mishra et al., 2020; Rapanta et al., 2020). In face-to-face classrooms, in hopefully now post-pandemic situation, hybrid education is being used systematically and more oriented towards the teaching objective.
In this study, it is discussed how the post-pandemic teaching has changed the way language teachers teach and language students learn languages, more specifically reading skills in L2 and to demonstrate why many language teachers have chosen to hybridize their language teaching methodologies. Analyzing the responses from interviews conducted with language teachers and students, it is also shown how we are entering a more target-oriented era of hybrid teaching, where teachers use digital tools to teach some reading skills, and face to face settings to teach other reading skills.
The focus of this study is centered on Pakistani English language teachers and students. These participants have been chosen because online teaching and the resulting hybridization is a relatively new norm for many middle-class students and teachers in the country (Iqbal & Campbell, 2021). Many of these teachers and students had neither used digital platforms nor internet applications. However, the lockdown and the forced online teaching revolutionized their views of language teaching and learning (Ali, 2021). Although many universities and colleges in the country have reopened, teachers appear to have merged the traditional ways with the online ways of teaching language (Iqbal & Campbell, 2021; Khan et al., 2021). They selectively use online and offline ways of teaching specific language skills (Okmawati, 2020). Therefore, in this study, we focus on the reasons why English language teachers use online and offline ways of teaching specific reading skills to L2 learners of English and the reactions of learners of English to such a mixed methodology. This research addresses the questions regarding what reading skills taught online and offline by teachers and what reading skills students like to learn online and offline.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Previous research did not focus on how online education is used for developing some reading skills, and how offline education is used to develop other reading skills. It is the aim of this study to fill the research lacuna by discussing when online and offline methodologies are used to teach specific reading skills in the target language, English, to undergraduates. In this study, reading skills, such as reading fluency and intensive reading comprehension are examined to demonstrate which reading skills are taught online, and which reading skills are taught offline, or in the hybrid manner.
Many researchers have studied the phenomenon of transitioning to online education during the pandemic (Cutri et al., 2020; Lemay et al., 2021; Teng & Wu, 2021). These researchers discussed online teaching as an emergency response to the closing of schools during the pandemic. Other researchers have assessed the extent of preparedness of teachers during the pandemic. Using questionnaire and qualitative analysis, Reister & Rook (2021) demonstrated that online tools, course management, teaching strategies and training focusing on teaching in virtual contexts are important components of teacher preparedness required to handle the education crises.
Research on prepared teachers’ expectations and experiences with online teaching during the pandemic was also conducted in Netherlands. A survey of 200 Dutch teachers showed “a significant change in the perception of teachers regarding their resolutions to implement technology in their lessons in the post-corona era” (van der Spoel et al., 2020). Another study on online teaching, its opportunities, and challenges, has also been conducted in Chile. It was an interpretative case study of 27 Chilean EFL teacher candidates to explore opportunities and challenges of online teaching during the pandemic. They conceptualize the sudden change of setting (from offline to online teaching) and lack of interaction as challenges, while they also view the sudden change as a potential contribution to teacher education and teaching careers (Sepulveda-Escobar & Morrison, 2020).
In his qualitative interview-based study of 59 teachers and principals, Alsaleh (2021) explored both successes and challenges of online teaching during the pandemic in Kuwait’s context. In this qualitative study, the participants’ practices of sharing values and vision, collective responsibility, professional reflective inquiry, collaboration, individual and group learning, and group support relationships in online teaching have been conceptualized as successes of the virtual way of teaching. In contrast, lack of educational resources, internet coverage, and workload have been identified as challenges posed by online teaching during the pandemic (Alsaleh, 2021).
Feng et al. (2021) conducted a comparative study on students’ performance before the pandemic and during the pandemic. Employing survey technique, they demonstrated that students’ performance was better in traditional contexts, however, their performance deteriorated when online education became a norm in the wake of COVID-19. They also emphasized that online education further widened earlier existing gaps between rural and urban students (Feng et al., 2021). A study by Lei & So (2021) compared teachers’ and students’ perceptions of online teaching during the pandemic. Data from an online survey of 117 teachers and 491 students in China showed that teachers’ perceptions of online teaching were influenced by the benefits of online teaching, while students’ perceptions were determined by the effectiveness of teaching strategies (Lei & So, 2021).
Some researchers have investigated teaching of language through online platforms in different contexts. According to Yandell (2020), teaching in an online context in England focusses on expanding vocabulary and teaching grammar to students. There is a way of developing reading skills of students by enabling them to interpret stories based on their life experiences. Using an experimental method of research, Liu & Pei (2021) showed that new media and digital tools are helpful in developing students’ reading skills. However, focusing on feedback on performance in spoken skills, Sun & Yang (2022) discussed that e-feedback is less effective than face-to-face feedback.
Some studies have shown how L2 reading skills can be taught using digital devices (Gutiérrez-Colón et al., 2020; Jiang & Ren, 2021; Liu et al., 2019; Neville et al., 2009). Digital devices, such as smartphones, iPads, laptops, and other gadgets connected to the internet can be effectively employed to improve L2 learners’ reading skills (Ali, 2021). Digital devices help students access a range of reading resources, which can be used to improve reading skills (Zano, 2020).
Akyol et al. (2014) have employed reading enrichment programs to develop L2 students' reading skills. They used 1 subject research technique and between subjects multiple-baseline levels model belonging to the technique. Furthermore, they used Ekwall and Shankar's (Shanker & Cockrum, 2019) reading inventory and reading comprehension test for data collection, which were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed to demonstrate how a meaningful environment can be created, and how a reading enrichment program can be implemented to improve L2 learners’ reading skills (Akyol et al., 2014). Besides, in Sindh's context, a province in Pakistan, Ali (2021) investigated how the use of digital devices was helpful in teaching L2 reading skills to the learners of English.
METHOD
This study was based on semi-structured interviews conducted with teachers and students of English in Pakistan’s Sindh province. The interviews of the participants were conducted in January, 2022. Before conducting interviews, the participants were briefly informed about the study and its aims. The participants were contacted one by one via WhatsApp, and they were asked relevant questions. The participants responded either by recording voice notes or by typing WhatsApp messages.
Participants
A short WhatsApp message inviting participation for this study was sent to twenty English language teachers and twenty English language students. These participants were on the researchers’ contact list. However, fifteen English language teachers and ten students of English were selected for this study because at the time of this study, the teacher participants and the student participants were engaged in teaching and learning of L2 reading skills respectively.
Purposive sampling technique was used to select 15 English language teachers from Pakistan’s universities and 10 students of English language were also chosen from these universities. According to King (2005), purposive sampling is an effective technique in collecting relevant and qualitative data. Therefore, this technique was used in this research. The average age of teachers was 38, while the average age of students was 22. 7 females, and 18 males participated in this research. 4 females were teachers, while 3 females were students. 9 males were teachers, whereas 9 males were students. The teachers and students were from different villages, towns, and cities in Sindh. The participants were guaranteed confidentiality. The real names of the participants have been replaced with imaginary names to ensure confidentiality.
Instruments
Semi-structured interviews were used as instruments to collect data from the participants. Semi-structured interviews were used because these were helpful in exploring in-depth responses (De Paoli & Foss, 2019, p. 83). The questions were open-ended. Five questions related to online language teaching methodologies used during the pandemic, whereas the other five questions were about the hybrid methodologies of English language teaching with a focus on reading skills. The questions about reading skills, such as reading fluency, vocabulary, word class identification, and reading comprehension were asked. Teachers were asked why they used online language teaching methodologies for some reading skills, while offline methodologies for other reading skills. For example, which language teaching methodologies do you use to teach scanning? Which language teaching methodologies do you use to teach comprehension? etc.
Questions were sent as voice notes via WhatsApp, which were responded by the participants. Typed questions were sent to some of the participants (two teachers and two students), and they sent typed answers via WhatsApp. The language of the interviews was English. To encourage detailed answers, probes were also used through follow up messages. A total of 10 questions were sent to the participants.
Procedure
Students were invited to share their responses regarding selective choice of language teaching methodologies by their teachers. For instance, which teaching methodologies for teaching reading do you find effective? Reading skills, such as scanning, intensive reading, word identification, and reading fluency were described to the student participants. Scanning was defined as a type of reading that involves focusing on a specific aspect/theme/feature in a text. Intensive reading was defined as a type of reading focused on both major and minor details in a text. Word identification was defined as an act of identifying a class of a word when reading a text. This included identifying whether a word is a noun, an adjective, a verb, or an adverb, etc. Reading fluency was defined as the ability to read with speed, accuracy, and proper expression.
The participants gave detailed answers using WhatsApp voice notes and texts. These voice notes were manually transcribed. The participants’ responses were qualitatively analyzed drawing upon Braun & Clarke’s (2021) model of thematic analysis. The model emphasizes reading and re-reading to identify general patterns and themes. The emergent themes are coded into broader categories, and themes. This module was followed in this study.
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
In this section, research findings are presented and analyzed based on two broader themes: Reading skills taught using offline sources and Reading skills taught using online sources.
Reading skills taught using offline sources: focus on teachers’ responses
In this sub-segment, teachers’ responses in relation to teaching of reading skills are discussed based on two sub-themes: Teachers’ use of face-to-face methodologies: focus on reading fluency, and Teachers’ use of face-to-face methodologies: focus on intensive reading comprehension.
Teachers’ use of face-to-face methodologies: focus on reading fluency
Reading skills, such as reading fluency which means the ability to read with speed, accuracy, and proper expression, are taught using offline means in the teacher fronted classrooms. Why teachers do this is discussed in this section.
Teachers’ Responses
Shafquat: “Since it focuses on individual involvement and increased attention, I teach reading fluency to my students in the face-to-face classes. I am unable to provide more focused support in online domains”.
Muzaffar: “This requires more practice that’s why it is easier to teach reading fluency in face-to-face classroom. I am doing this in my class, though for some other language skills I may, when necessary, use online sources and platforms, such as Zoom, Eventbrite, etc.”.
When it comes to teaching reading fluency, many teachers prefer face-to-face language teaching to online language teaching strategies. Shafquat confirms this fact, and states two reasons for doing this. The first reason relates to individual involvement, and the second reason concerns increased focus by the teacher required in improving reading fluency of the learners. Thus, face-to-face interaction is preferred when teaching reading fluency because it is said to facilitate individual participation and increased focus. According to Feng et al. (2021), students’ performance in L2 acquisition ameliorates in the traditional classroom contexts.
Muzaffar also shows that learning reading fluency in physical, teacher fronted classrooms is much easier because students get more opportunities to practice, which may not be the case in online language teaching. Muzaffar also mentions that there may be an opportunity to use online language teaching methodologies. In the words of Feng et al. (2021), in online classrooms, there are many ways students are distracted, and this can affect their L2 learning outcomes.
Teachers’ use of face-to-face methodologies: focus on intensive reading comprehension
Intensive reading refers to the type of reading where students are asked to read and note all details-minor and major- in a text. Teacher participants’ responses regarding using offline ways of teaching intensive comprehensive reading strategy are presented and discussed in this section.
Reasons for teaching intensive reading offline: Teachers’ responses
Shima: “Intensive reading comprehension requires more time, energy and focus which may not be applied in online contexts. Every individual need special care/teaching and perhaps different reading extracts are needed to suit learners’ reading interests. In online domains, I just cannot impose a text and ask students to read it carefully. I like to ask students to choose their interesting extracts and read them intensively and I ask questions to check their intensive reading comprehension”.
Kashif: “For intensive reading and teaching it is a skill, offline ways of teaching are the best. If need be, I will switch to online sources. There is no coercion, so I do what I feel my students like and easily learn”.
Shima says that intensive reading comprehension can be developed in a better way if taught in face-to-face classrooms. The reason stated is that it requires more time, energy and focus which may not be possible in online domains. Moreover, developing this skill needs special language teaching care, and creating interest among students, which may not be easy in online contexts. However, in offline teaching, many texts are not easily available as compared to their availability in online language teaching. Kashif shows a tendency towards hybridization of language teaching methodologies because it can allow him to combine both the traditional and online teaching methodologies to achieve his teaching goals effectively. In the words of Iqbal and Campbell (2021), hybridization is an influential way of teaching language skills. Similarly, according to the participants, intensive reading skill can be taught effectively using the hybrid methods of teaching.
Teaching reading in face-to-face classrooms: Focus on students
Students also shared their views of the learning of reading skills using offline ways. Their responses are given here. For the students who did not understand ‘reading fluency’ and ‘intensive reading comprehension’, the terms were explained. Reading fluency was defined as the ability to read with speed, accuracy, and proper expression, while intensive reading was defined as a skill of reading that involves intensive focus on both minor and major details when reading a text.
Students’ views of using offline ways to teach reading skills
Aamir: “I want to practice my reading fluency in front of my teacher to know if I am reading right and punctuating at the right place. This is done better in the physical classes”.
Asad: “Reading fluency and accuracy comes when we are constantly monitored by our teachers in face-to-face teaching. In online teaching, every student may not get equal chance due to the slow net or other problems”.
Junaid: “Intensive reading in students can be developed by a teacher’s intensive guidance possible only in offline domains. We live in interior Baluchistan (Pakistan’s province), and we don’t have a good network connection to develop and practice such intensive skills”.
Responses given by student participants show that teacher’s guidance and monitoring are important techniques to help students develop their pronunciation. Incidentally, it should be mentioned here that for learners’ reading skills appear to focus on pronunciation, while for the teacher’s reading comprehension appears to focus on understanding of texts, and that is why the teachers discuss the need for many texts which interest the learners.
Junaid says that digital divide can pose challenges to make online learning effective. Therefore, the learner supports offline face-to-face teaching, when it comes to teaching reading comprehension and other skills. Reading skills focused in the online domain are now discussed.
Reading skills taught using online sources
Reading skills focused on in the online domain are now discussed.
Teachers’ use of online methodologies: focus on scanning
Scanning is the process of quickly reading a text focusing on a particular piece of information, figures, names, etc. For instance, a scanning exercise can involve students focus on looking for words which learners do not know. A total of 7 teachers stated that they like to use online sources and digital tools for teaching reading skills, for scanning, and word identification. The teachers’ responses are given below:
Online ways of teaching scanning: teachers’ responses
Sara Khan: “I use PowerPoint slides and these slides include either short stories or essays. The PowerPoint slides contain extracts taken from these sources. I do some scaffolding and allow students to scan the texts. When I invite my colleagues to give a talk on the topic, slides are shared using Eventbrite, Zoom, Microsoft Teams and other online platforms”.
Abdul Wahid: “Online resources are multiple and there are many options of sharing readings from a wide range of contexts. Such readings can develop scanning skills of students. I am of the view that such wider options of sharing online readings cannot occur when teaching only takes place in offline domains and there is no recourse to online sources”.
Mansoor Ahmed: “I recommend and share online websites using email or WhatsApp with my students and share many interesting readings to enhance their scanning skills”.
Sara says that she used online platforms, such as Zoom, Eventbrite, and Microsoft Teams to teach the skill of scanning to her students. PowerPoint slides are often shared via these online platforms when an invited teacher gives a talk from a distant area. Mansoor says that he used email and WhatsApp to send required readings to his students. Since these tools are connected with the internet and give access to online websites via the links shared, these can be described as online tools of teaching.
Sara used PowerPoint slides as an online teaching methodology along with scaffolding technique to share ideas about how to scan a text. Scaffolding refers to the support given by teachers to their students as students develop new concepts or skills. For instance, a teacher responded that she plays online videos on a multimedia screen to help students understand what scanning is and how it is done. This type of support using online videos is also a type of scaffolding. Sara shared excerpts using slides taken from short stories and essays to help her students practice the skill of scanning. Using these online platforms and pedagogical tools shows what Reister & Rook (2021) have identified as teachers’ preparedness in the wake of the pandemic.
Teacher respondents’ answers in relation to the use of online resources and platforms for teaching scanning skills and word identification skills (identifying whether a word is a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.) follow.
Teachers’ use of online teaching methodologies: focus on word identification
In this context, word identification refers to the act of identifying a class of a word whether a word is a noun, verb, etc. For instance, teacher shares some sentences/reading texts and ask students to identify nouns, verbs, or other parts of speech. In this sub-section, the teacher participants’ responses about teaching the reading skill of identifying parts of speech are presented and discussed. See below.
Online ways of teaching word identification
Saleem: “Although things have become normal, and I now take physical classes but the things that I learnt when teaching online during the pandemic are here to stay. For instance, I used Zoom in an effective way to teach word identification to my students. Though they struggle in English, I switch to the basics. Using Zoom cursor, I point to a highlighted word on the shared screen and ask my students to identify it. Using Zoom features, the students raise their hands, and I successively ask many students to unmute themselves and answer my questions”.
Aijaz: “I invite many teachers online who share e-board using Eventbrite and teach reading skills to my students. The students learn how to read by identifying parts of speech, such as verbs”.
Saleem says that when the lockdown was eased, teacher fronted classrooms became a norm. However, using online platforms, such as Zoom to teach word identification to students was retained as an effective, online pedagogical tool, because as the response shows, it enabled students to participate in the learning activity by using raising hand and unmuting options in Zoom.
Aijaz uses, with the assistance of other teachers, e-board as methodology to teach the reading skill of word identification to his students. Such maintenance of online teaching techniques in the post-corona era shows what van der Spoel et al. (van der Spoel et al., 2020) call a significant change in teachers’ attitudes towards implementing technology in teaching their lessons. We are now going to discuss students’ responses with respect to using online resources for teaching purposes.
Reading comprehension and word identification taught using online sources: focus on undergraduates
Students’ responses in relation to the use of online resources for teaching reading comprehension (scanning) and word identification were also recorded, and these are now presented in this section. Many of the responses correspond to the responses given by the teachers, and coherent patterns and congruent progression can be noticed in the responses given by both students and teachers. However, there were some exceptions. For instance, a student respondent discussed how digital divide can make learning online a challenging task for many students living in underdeveloped areas.
Students’ views of using online sources for teaching reading skills
Ahmed: “Before the virus came, we had face-to-face classes. But the virus changed everything. Our universities were closed, and lockdowns were imposed. We switched to online classes. At first, we struggled, but slowly we grew accustomed to it. Our teachers would share many reading sources and we were given opportunities to discuss our reading comprehension skills with teachers and students from different contexts. That became possible due to online teaching, and we learnt reading effectively. Even after reopening of schools online teaching of reading continues (scanning)”.
Minhaj: “Reading comprehension, such as scanning became visually attractive. Beautiful slides that contained reading material were used to help us learn comprehension and other reading skills. Even after the pandemic, we ask our teachers to use slides to teach us reading comprehension and other skills. By other skills I mean reading to understand meaning and skimming, etc.—Sometimes, we use e-dictionaries to help us understand meaning of difficult words when reading a text”.
Lutf: “After the reopening of classes, I was digitally literate. Everyone else had become a digitally competent person. We chose to use these skills for learning English language skills, such as comprehension and word identification”.
Abid: “Learning became more hybrid. Now, we are digitally prepared to cope with educational crises because some of our language skills, we learn online, and these include the word identification skills easily”.
Ahmed implicitly shows that the outbreak of the pandemic changed the ways of language teaching in different contexts. Classes moved to online platforms, while after the lockdowns were lifted, traditional classes commenced. However, the effects of the online language teaching methodologies used during the pandemic are going to stay for a longtime, especially if they help both teachers and students achieve their teaching and learning goals respectively. In the same vein, Ahmed says that their teachers have chosen to teach scanning using online teaching methodologies.
Minhaj refers to the phenomenon of collaboration used by learners as a strategy in online language teaching methodology. According to the participant who gave the response, online slides shared via online platforms allow students to share their process of learning and engage in the act of collaborative learning, which in the words of Alsaleh (2021) is one of the many successes fostered by online teaching methodologies.
The responses given by Lutf and Abid can be examined as two of the main reasons why online teaching has been maintained in the post-corona era for teaching certain reading skills. Lutf shows that during the lockdown, many students and teachers had developed digital literacy, and many teachers and students wanted to maintain it, and thus they continued using online language teaching methodologies. In addition to digital literacy, online teaching via Zoom and other platforms made word identification skill much easier, therefore, online language teaching was even used after the physical classes commenced (see response of Abid). According to Sepulveda-Escobar & Morrison (2020), these changes and improvements in language teaching methodologies contribute to teacher education and teaching careers.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
Reading involves a range of skills. These include comprehension, decoding, reading fluency, word identification, scanning, skimming, etc. The reading skills focused on in this research include intensive reading, scanning, reading fluency, and word identification. The teacher respondents in this pilot study are selectively using online and offline resources depending on the reading skill to be taught. For a reading skill to be taught, a text is necessary. It appears that online sources though they may provide a range of reading texts may not cater to the personal interests of learners who may want to select their diaries, etc. As for scanning, teachers preferred using online platforms, such as Zoom, Eventbrite, Microsoft Teams for teaching reading. They also shared a wide range of reading texts with students via either email or WhatsApp. They mostly used PowerPoint as a tool to make online learning happen, especially when invited guest speakers were taken on board. Much like scanning, the reading skill of word identification was also taught online.
Learners also responded that they have developed digital literacy because online teaching is becoming a norm. They sometimes even asked their teachers to employ online tools and share videos related to reading skills of scanning and word identification. This shows how learners, much like teachers, had adjusted to the new ways of learning. As for intensive reading and reading fluency, teachers used face-to-face language teaching methodologies. The reasons of doing this related to more focus and care required in these two reading skills. Individual needs of students were also realized by teachers, and thus they preferred teaching these skills in teacher-fronted classrooms.
Students were also comfortable with these methodologies because they were of the view that in teacher fronted classrooms, their intensive reading skills and reading fluency could be better monitored by their teachers. This shows how both students and their teachers had adjusted to both online and face-to-face teaching methodologies to teach specific reading skills. In this study, it was discussed how teachers use different language teaching methodologies to teach different language reading skills, such as scanning, word identification, reading fluency and intensive reading. Teachers used online platforms, such as Zoom, Eventbrite, and Microsoft Teams to teach scanning and word identification skills, while they taught reading fluency and intensive reading in the teacher fronted classrooms.
Much like previous findings (Cho & Kim, 2021; Croucher et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2021), this study showed how the selective use of teaching methodologies (offline/online) can effectively help L2 students acquire L2 skills, though the findings of this study were focused on acquiring L2 reading skills in Pakistan’s context at the higher secondary level. It is clear then that thinking teachers had learnt from online teaching and in face-to-face classrooms thought carefully of which reading skill would be best taught and best learnt in face to face and which using online resources. There was also tendency towards hybrid language teaching among a few language teachers and students.
Much like teachers, students also preferred different modes of language teaching and positively responded to the ways of teaching used by teachers. Unlike other researchers’ findings that focused on teachers using online language teaching to develop students’ language skills (Duarte, 2020; Taheri et al., 2020; Yilmaz, 2021; Yuzlu & Dikilitas, 2022), this study focused on how different teaching methodologies are made suitable for teaching certain English language reading skills. A much bigger sample should be investigated with a similar objective.
The pandemic has made teachers and learners aware of the range of media that can be used online. Much like previous findings (Hnatyshena et al., 2021; Pei, 2021; Xiaodong, 2022), this research stresses that hybrid teaching and learning takes place with teachers carefully selecting offline or online depending on the skill that must be taught. This study further elaborates that moving from pandemic to endemic means that teachers and learners now have a choice of using a combination of both online and offline ways of teaching and learning. They must be wise and link the methodology with the teaching objective. They must also be vigilant of the responses of learners and their responses to hybrid learning.
It is hoped that language teachers will use appropriate methodologies online or offline to teach specific language skills not only in reading but also in the teaching of writing, speaking, and listening skills. It is also hoped that there will be efforts taken by teachers to match their preferences to the preferences of their students.
Pedagogical implications
Although this study used a limited sample, much bigger sample could be used to report same findings and draw similar conclusions. This study will help many teachers to decide which teaching methodologies should be used when teaching a specific reading skill. It will help both teachers and students to make intelligent and suitable use of teaching and learning methodologies when dealing with a reading skill.
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Liu, T. S.-W., Liu, Y.-T., & Chen, C.-Y. D. (2019). Meaningfulness is in the eye of the reader: Eye-tracking insights of L2 learners reading e-books and their pedagogical implications. Interactive Learning Environments, 27(2), 181–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2018.1451901
Liu, X., & Pei, J. (2021). Effects of IELTS reading education by using new media learning environments effectively. Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1990086
Mishra, L., Gupta, T., & Shree, A. (2020). Online teaching-learning in higher education during lockdown period of COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 1, 100012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100012
Neville, D. O., Shelton, B. E., & McInnis, B. (2009). Cybertext redux: Using digital game-based learning to teach L2 vocabulary, reading, and culture. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 22(5), 409–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588220903345168
Okmawati, M. (2020). The Use of Google Classroom during Pandemic. Journal of English Language Teaching, 9(2), 438–443. https://doi.org/10.24036/jelt.v9i2.109293
Pandey, S., & Pabalkar, V. (2021). Online and Offline Learning and Evaluations—A Comparative study. 2021 1st Conference on Online Teaching for Mobile Education (OT4ME), 122–123. https://doi.org/10.1109/OT4ME53559.2021.9638806
Pei, W. (2021). Blended Teaching Research for Post-pandemic Era of Primary School. Education Study, 3(4), 7–10. https://doi.org/10.35534/es.0401002
Rapanta, C., Botturi, L., Goodyear, P., Guàrdia, L., & Koole, M. (2020). Online University Teaching During and After the Covid-19 Crisis: Refocusing Teacher Presence and Learning Activity. Postdigital Science and Education, 2(3), 923–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y
Reister, M., & Rook, R. (2021). Perceptions of preparedness for online teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic as a graduate of an education program at a university in the Midwest. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 37(2), 128–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2021.1908920
Sepulveda-Escobar, P., & Morrison, A. (2020). Online teaching placement during the COVID-19 pandemic in Chile: Challenges and opportunities. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 587–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1820981
Shanker, J. L., & Cockrum, W. (2019). Ekwall/Shanker Reading Inventory (7th edition). Pearson.
Sun, Q., & Yang, Z. (2022). ‘We lose a lot of value’: Feedback on English for academic purposes speaking skills in online teaching in a UK-China joint-venture university. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 47(4), 622–635. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2021.1940838
Taheri, H., Sadighi, F., Bagheri, M. S., & Bavali, M. (2020). Investigating the relationship between Iranian EFL learners’ use of language learning strategies and foreign language skills achievement. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 7(1), 1710944. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2019.1710944
Teng, M. F., & Wu, J. G. (2021). Tea or tears: Online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Education for Teaching, 47(2), 290–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2021.1886834
van der Spoel, I., Noroozi, O., Schuurink, E., & van Ginkel, S. (2020). Teachers’ online teaching expectations and experiences during the Covid19-pandemic in the Netherlands. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 623–638. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1821185
Xiaodong, L. (2022). A Hybrid Online and Offline Approach to Teaching Spoken English Based on Modern Educational Technology. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 2022, e3803436. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3803436
Yandell, J. (2020). Learning under Lockdown: English teaching in the time of Covid-19. Changing English, 27(3), 262–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/1358684X.2020.1779029
Yilmaz, T. (2021). Translanguaging as a pedagogy for equity of language minoritized students. International Journal of Multilingualism, 18(3), 435–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2019.1640705
Yuzlu, M. Y., & Dikilitas, K. (2022). Translanguaging in the development of EFL learners’ foreign language skills in Turkish context. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 16(2), 176–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2021.1892698
Zano, K. (2020). From the teachers’ perspectives: Resources used in teaching reading comprehension to English First Additional Language (EFAL) learners in the FET phase. International Journal of Inclusive Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2020.1858979
Zhang, M., Akoto, M., & Li, M. (2021). Digital multimodal composing in post-secondary L2 settings: A review of the empirical landscape. Computer Assisted Language Learning. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1942068
Main Article Content
Abstract
Drastic changes in the wake of COVID-19 have been witnessed in many sectors. The education sector has also been affected due to lockdowns. Exclusive online teaching methodologies were used due to the closing of schools. Platforms such as Zoom, Eventbrite, Microsoft Teams and many others were used for language teaching. Language teachers were trained regarding the use of digital tools, and this led to a radical shift to online language teaching. However, we are now moving back from enforced online teaching during the initial era of Covid-19 to teacher fronted classrooms. In this research, the focus will be what language teachers have learnt from that time and are using now for more effective teaching of reading skills. Data collected through interviews with 15 teachers and 10 students who have recently shifted to a hybrid way of language teaching and learning were qualitatively analyzed to demonstrate the benefits of hybrid language teaching and learning. Findings show that this methodology is becoming popular among teachers and students, because it enhances both teaching and learning and is effective in achieving teaching and learning goals. In summary, the wise and selective use of digital tools and face to face teaching for the teaching of a range of reading skills improves learning and their strategic use by the teacher should be encouraged and is discussed in this research.
Keywords
Article Details
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References
Akyol, H., Çakıroğlu, A., & Kuruyer, H. G. (2014). A study on the development of reading skills of the students having difficulty in reading: Enrichment reading program. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 6(2), 199–212. https://www.iejee.com/index.php/IEJEE/article/view/41
Ali, A. (2021). Digitalizing the Language Input in Larkana, Sindh: Focus on Teaching Reading Skills. Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literature, 3(2), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.56498/322021137
Almendingen, K., Morseth, M. S., Gjølstad, E., Brevik, A., & Tørris, C. (2021). Student’s experiences with online teaching following COVID-19 lockdown: A mixed methods explorative study. PLOS ONE, 16(8), e0250378. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378
Alsaleh, A. (2021). Professional learning communities for educators’ capacity building during COVID-19: Kuwait educators’ successes and challenges. International Journal of Leadership in Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2021.1964607
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). Thematic analysis: A practical guide to understanding and doing (1st ed.). SAGE Publications.
Cho, H., & Kim, Y. (2021). Comparing the characteristics of EFL students’ multimodal composing and traditional monomodal writing: The case of a reading-to-write task. Language Teaching Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211046740
Croucher, S. M., Li, M., Huang, Y., Pan, X., Yuan, G., & Kou, Y. (2022). Developing media and information literacy competencies: A case study in rural schools in Yunnan Province, China. Journal of Applied Communication Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2022.2075236
Cutri, R. M., Mena, J., & Whiting, E. F. (2020). Faculty readiness for online crisis teaching: Transitioning to online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 523–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1815702
De Paoli, D., & Foss, L. (2019). Effects of network funding: An evaluation. Nordic Council of Ministers. https://doi.org/10.6027/TN2019-523
Duarte, J. (2020). Translanguaging in the context of mainstream multilingual education. International Journal of Multilingualism, 17(2), 232–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2018.1512607
Feng, X., Ioan, N., & Li, Y. (2021). Comparison of the effect of online teaching during COVID-19 and pre-pandemic traditional teaching in compulsory education. The Journal of Educational Research, 114(4), 307–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2021.1930986
Gutiérrez-Colón, M., Frumuselu, A. D., & Curell, H. (2020). Mobile-assisted Language learning to enhance L2 reading comprehension: A selection of implementation studies between 2012–2017. Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1813179
Hnatyshena, I., Khariuk, I., Azarova, I., & Ivanytska, I. (2021). Distance learning of foreign languages for students of economic specialties. Linguistics and Culture Review, 5(S4), 780–798. https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5nS4.1732
Iqbal, M. Z., & Campbell, A. (2021, May 5). COVID-19, education, and challenges for learning-technology adoption in Pakistan [HTML]. Interactions. https://interactions.acm.org/blog/view/covid-19-education-and-challenges-for-learning-technology-adoption-in-pakis
Jiang, L., & Ren, W. (2021). Digital Multimodal Composing in L2 Learning: Ideologies and Impact. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 20(3), 167–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2020.1753192
Khan, A. H., Ejaz, N., Matthews, S., Snow, S., & Matthews, B. (2021). Speculative Design for Education: Using Participatory Methods to Map Design Challenges and Opportunities in Pakistan. Designing Interactive Systems Conference 2021, 1748–1764. https://doi.org/10.1145/3461778.3462117
King, B. (2005). Quota, Representative, and Other Methods of Purposive Sampling. In P. Armitage & T. Colton (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Biostatistics (p. b2a16052). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470011815.b2a16052
Lei, S. I., & So, A. S. I. (2021). Online Teaching and Learning Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic – A Comparison of Teacher and Student Perceptions. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 33(3), 148–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/10963758.2021.1907196
Lemay, D. J., Doleck, T., & Bazelais, P. (2021). Transition to online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1871633
Liu, T. S.-W., Liu, Y.-T., & Chen, C.-Y. D. (2019). Meaningfulness is in the eye of the reader: Eye-tracking insights of L2 learners reading e-books and their pedagogical implications. Interactive Learning Environments, 27(2), 181–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2018.1451901
Liu, X., & Pei, J. (2021). Effects of IELTS reading education by using new media learning environments effectively. Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1990086
Mishra, L., Gupta, T., & Shree, A. (2020). Online teaching-learning in higher education during lockdown period of COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 1, 100012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100012
Neville, D. O., Shelton, B. E., & McInnis, B. (2009). Cybertext redux: Using digital game-based learning to teach L2 vocabulary, reading, and culture. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 22(5), 409–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588220903345168
Okmawati, M. (2020). The Use of Google Classroom during Pandemic. Journal of English Language Teaching, 9(2), 438–443. https://doi.org/10.24036/jelt.v9i2.109293
Pandey, S., & Pabalkar, V. (2021). Online and Offline Learning and Evaluations—A Comparative study. 2021 1st Conference on Online Teaching for Mobile Education (OT4ME), 122–123. https://doi.org/10.1109/OT4ME53559.2021.9638806
Pei, W. (2021). Blended Teaching Research for Post-pandemic Era of Primary School. Education Study, 3(4), 7–10. https://doi.org/10.35534/es.0401002
Rapanta, C., Botturi, L., Goodyear, P., Guàrdia, L., & Koole, M. (2020). Online University Teaching During and After the Covid-19 Crisis: Refocusing Teacher Presence and Learning Activity. Postdigital Science and Education, 2(3), 923–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y
Reister, M., & Rook, R. (2021). Perceptions of preparedness for online teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic as a graduate of an education program at a university in the Midwest. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 37(2), 128–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2021.1908920
Sepulveda-Escobar, P., & Morrison, A. (2020). Online teaching placement during the COVID-19 pandemic in Chile: Challenges and opportunities. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 587–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1820981
Shanker, J. L., & Cockrum, W. (2019). Ekwall/Shanker Reading Inventory (7th edition). Pearson.
Sun, Q., & Yang, Z. (2022). ‘We lose a lot of value’: Feedback on English for academic purposes speaking skills in online teaching in a UK-China joint-venture university. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 47(4), 622–635. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2021.1940838
Taheri, H., Sadighi, F., Bagheri, M. S., & Bavali, M. (2020). Investigating the relationship between Iranian EFL learners’ use of language learning strategies and foreign language skills achievement. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 7(1), 1710944. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2019.1710944
Teng, M. F., & Wu, J. G. (2021). Tea or tears: Online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Education for Teaching, 47(2), 290–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2021.1886834
van der Spoel, I., Noroozi, O., Schuurink, E., & van Ginkel, S. (2020). Teachers’ online teaching expectations and experiences during the Covid19-pandemic in the Netherlands. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 623–638. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1821185
Xiaodong, L. (2022). A Hybrid Online and Offline Approach to Teaching Spoken English Based on Modern Educational Technology. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 2022, e3803436. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3803436
Yandell, J. (2020). Learning under Lockdown: English teaching in the time of Covid-19. Changing English, 27(3), 262–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/1358684X.2020.1779029
Yilmaz, T. (2021). Translanguaging as a pedagogy for equity of language minoritized students. International Journal of Multilingualism, 18(3), 435–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2019.1640705
Yuzlu, M. Y., & Dikilitas, K. (2022). Translanguaging in the development of EFL learners’ foreign language skills in Turkish context. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 16(2), 176–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2021.1892698
Zano, K. (2020). From the teachers’ perspectives: Resources used in teaching reading comprehension to English First Additional Language (EFAL) learners in the FET phase. International Journal of Inclusive Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2020.1858979
Zhang, M., Akoto, M., & Li, M. (2021). Digital multimodal composing in post-secondary L2 settings: A review of the empirical landscape. Computer Assisted Language Learning. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1942068
References
Akyol, H., Çakıroğlu, A., & Kuruyer, H. G. (2014). A study on the development of reading skills of the students having difficulty in reading: Enrichment reading program. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 6(2), 199–212. https://www.iejee.com/index.php/IEJEE/article/view/41
Ali, A. (2021). Digitalizing the Language Input in Larkana, Sindh: Focus on Teaching Reading Skills. Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literature, 3(2), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.56498/322021137
Almendingen, K., Morseth, M. S., Gjølstad, E., Brevik, A., & Tørris, C. (2021). Student’s experiences with online teaching following COVID-19 lockdown: A mixed methods explorative study. PLOS ONE, 16(8), e0250378. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250378
Alsaleh, A. (2021). Professional learning communities for educators’ capacity building during COVID-19: Kuwait educators’ successes and challenges. International Journal of Leadership in Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2021.1964607
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). Thematic analysis: A practical guide to understanding and doing (1st ed.). SAGE Publications.
Cho, H., & Kim, Y. (2021). Comparing the characteristics of EFL students’ multimodal composing and traditional monomodal writing: The case of a reading-to-write task. Language Teaching Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211046740
Croucher, S. M., Li, M., Huang, Y., Pan, X., Yuan, G., & Kou, Y. (2022). Developing media and information literacy competencies: A case study in rural schools in Yunnan Province, China. Journal of Applied Communication Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2022.2075236
Cutri, R. M., Mena, J., & Whiting, E. F. (2020). Faculty readiness for online crisis teaching: Transitioning to online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 523–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1815702
De Paoli, D., & Foss, L. (2019). Effects of network funding: An evaluation. Nordic Council of Ministers. https://doi.org/10.6027/TN2019-523
Duarte, J. (2020). Translanguaging in the context of mainstream multilingual education. International Journal of Multilingualism, 17(2), 232–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2018.1512607
Feng, X., Ioan, N., & Li, Y. (2021). Comparison of the effect of online teaching during COVID-19 and pre-pandemic traditional teaching in compulsory education. The Journal of Educational Research, 114(4), 307–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2021.1930986
Gutiérrez-Colón, M., Frumuselu, A. D., & Curell, H. (2020). Mobile-assisted Language learning to enhance L2 reading comprehension: A selection of implementation studies between 2012–2017. Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1813179
Hnatyshena, I., Khariuk, I., Azarova, I., & Ivanytska, I. (2021). Distance learning of foreign languages for students of economic specialties. Linguistics and Culture Review, 5(S4), 780–798. https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5nS4.1732
Iqbal, M. Z., & Campbell, A. (2021, May 5). COVID-19, education, and challenges for learning-technology adoption in Pakistan [HTML]. Interactions. https://interactions.acm.org/blog/view/covid-19-education-and-challenges-for-learning-technology-adoption-in-pakis
Jiang, L., & Ren, W. (2021). Digital Multimodal Composing in L2 Learning: Ideologies and Impact. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 20(3), 167–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2020.1753192
Khan, A. H., Ejaz, N., Matthews, S., Snow, S., & Matthews, B. (2021). Speculative Design for Education: Using Participatory Methods to Map Design Challenges and Opportunities in Pakistan. Designing Interactive Systems Conference 2021, 1748–1764. https://doi.org/10.1145/3461778.3462117
King, B. (2005). Quota, Representative, and Other Methods of Purposive Sampling. In P. Armitage & T. Colton (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Biostatistics (p. b2a16052). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470011815.b2a16052
Lei, S. I., & So, A. S. I. (2021). Online Teaching and Learning Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic – A Comparison of Teacher and Student Perceptions. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 33(3), 148–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/10963758.2021.1907196
Lemay, D. J., Doleck, T., & Bazelais, P. (2021). Transition to online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1871633
Liu, T. S.-W., Liu, Y.-T., & Chen, C.-Y. D. (2019). Meaningfulness is in the eye of the reader: Eye-tracking insights of L2 learners reading e-books and their pedagogical implications. Interactive Learning Environments, 27(2), 181–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2018.1451901
Liu, X., & Pei, J. (2021). Effects of IELTS reading education by using new media learning environments effectively. Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1990086
Mishra, L., Gupta, T., & Shree, A. (2020). Online teaching-learning in higher education during lockdown period of COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 1, 100012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100012
Neville, D. O., Shelton, B. E., & McInnis, B. (2009). Cybertext redux: Using digital game-based learning to teach L2 vocabulary, reading, and culture. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 22(5), 409–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588220903345168
Okmawati, M. (2020). The Use of Google Classroom during Pandemic. Journal of English Language Teaching, 9(2), 438–443. https://doi.org/10.24036/jelt.v9i2.109293
Pandey, S., & Pabalkar, V. (2021). Online and Offline Learning and Evaluations—A Comparative study. 2021 1st Conference on Online Teaching for Mobile Education (OT4ME), 122–123. https://doi.org/10.1109/OT4ME53559.2021.9638806
Pei, W. (2021). Blended Teaching Research for Post-pandemic Era of Primary School. Education Study, 3(4), 7–10. https://doi.org/10.35534/es.0401002
Rapanta, C., Botturi, L., Goodyear, P., Guàrdia, L., & Koole, M. (2020). Online University Teaching During and After the Covid-19 Crisis: Refocusing Teacher Presence and Learning Activity. Postdigital Science and Education, 2(3), 923–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y
Reister, M., & Rook, R. (2021). Perceptions of preparedness for online teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic as a graduate of an education program at a university in the Midwest. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 37(2), 128–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2021.1908920
Sepulveda-Escobar, P., & Morrison, A. (2020). Online teaching placement during the COVID-19 pandemic in Chile: Challenges and opportunities. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 587–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1820981
Shanker, J. L., & Cockrum, W. (2019). Ekwall/Shanker Reading Inventory (7th edition). Pearson.
Sun, Q., & Yang, Z. (2022). ‘We lose a lot of value’: Feedback on English for academic purposes speaking skills in online teaching in a UK-China joint-venture university. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 47(4), 622–635. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2021.1940838
Taheri, H., Sadighi, F., Bagheri, M. S., & Bavali, M. (2020). Investigating the relationship between Iranian EFL learners’ use of language learning strategies and foreign language skills achievement. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 7(1), 1710944. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2019.1710944
Teng, M. F., & Wu, J. G. (2021). Tea or tears: Online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Education for Teaching, 47(2), 290–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2021.1886834
van der Spoel, I., Noroozi, O., Schuurink, E., & van Ginkel, S. (2020). Teachers’ online teaching expectations and experiences during the Covid19-pandemic in the Netherlands. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 623–638. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1821185
Xiaodong, L. (2022). A Hybrid Online and Offline Approach to Teaching Spoken English Based on Modern Educational Technology. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 2022, e3803436. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3803436
Yandell, J. (2020). Learning under Lockdown: English teaching in the time of Covid-19. Changing English, 27(3), 262–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/1358684X.2020.1779029
Yilmaz, T. (2021). Translanguaging as a pedagogy for equity of language minoritized students. International Journal of Multilingualism, 18(3), 435–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2019.1640705
Yuzlu, M. Y., & Dikilitas, K. (2022). Translanguaging in the development of EFL learners’ foreign language skills in Turkish context. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 16(2), 176–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2021.1892698
Zano, K. (2020). From the teachers’ perspectives: Resources used in teaching reading comprehension to English First Additional Language (EFAL) learners in the FET phase. International Journal of Inclusive Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2020.1858979
Zhang, M., Akoto, M., & Li, M. (2021). Digital multimodal composing in post-secondary L2 settings: A review of the empirical landscape. Computer Assisted Language Learning. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1942068
