Main Article Content
Abstract
Local governments (LGs) have an advantage in fighting pandemics compared to other levels of government. This is evident from the success stories of many local governments around the world. Because LGs are closer to the ground situation, they are able to act more contextually and flexibly. Pandemic containment measures like contact tracing, physical distancing, wearing of masks, quarantining, encouraging vaccination, and social support are easier for local governments to undertake with a certain degree of ownership. This paper analyses the role of rural LGs known as panchayats in containing pandemics, particularly Kerala, which has the most empowered village-level panchayats in India and has experience in participatory planning for more than two decades. The paper discusses Kerala's gains in pandemic management and the areas where it lagged.
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Copyright (c) 2022 John S. Moolakkattu
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References
Abrori, F. (2021). The role of local governments in regional financial management for the handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. Yurispruden: Jurnal Fakultas Hukum Universitas Islam Malang, 4(2), 208–222. https://doi.org/10.33474/yur.v4i2.10250
Ahmad, E. (2022). Multilevel responses to risks, shocks and pandemics: Lessons from the evolving Chinese governance model. Journal of Chinese Governance, 7(2), 291–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/23812346.2020.1813395
Ahrens, T., & Ferry, L. (2020). Financial resilience of English local government in the aftermath of COVID-19. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 32(5), 813–823. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBAFM-07-2020-0098
AmritKiran, M., Suresh, A., & Jayashree, S. (2018). A study on Kudumbashree in Kerala. International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 118, 4195–4201. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333164090_A_Study_on_Kudumbashree_in_Kerala
Anttiroiko, A.-V. (2021). Successful government responses to the pandemic: Contextualizing national and urban responses to the COVID-19 outbreak in East and West. International Journal of E-Planning Research, 10(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJEPR.20210401.oa1
Billava, N. (2021). Role of Gram Panchayats in tackling COVID-19: A case study from Karnataka. Journal of Rural Development, 40(1), 80–93. https://doi.org/10.25175/jrd/2021/v40/i1/166504
Blair, H. (2000). Participation and accountability at the periphery: Democratic local governance in six countries. World Development, 28(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00109-6
Chathukulam, J., & John, M. S. (2002). Five years of participatory planning in Kerala: Rhetoric and reality. Economic and Political Weekly, 37(49), 4917–4926. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4412934
Chathukulam, J., & Joseph, M. (2022). Management of the COVID-19 pandemic in Kerala through the lens of state capacity and clientelism (WIDER Working Paper 2022; WIDER Working Paper, Vol. 2022). UNU-WIDER. https://doi.org/10.35188/UNU-WIDER/2022/191-4
Chathukulam, J., & Tharamangalam, J. (2021). The Kerala model in the time of COVID19: Rethinking state, society and democracy. World Development, 137, 105207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105207
Dutta, A., & Fischer, H. W. (2021). The local governance of COVID-19: Disease prevention and social security in rural India. World Development, 138, 105234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105234
Green, D., & Loualiche, E. (2021a). State and local government employment in the COVID-19 crisis. Journal of Public Economics, 193, 104321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104321
Green, D., & Loualiche, E. (2021b). State and local government employment in the COVID-19 crisis. Journal of Public Economics, 193, 104321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104321
Gupta, S., Nguyen, T., Raman, S., Lee, B., Lozano-Rojas, F., Bento, A., Simon, K., & Wing, C. (2021). Tracking public and private responses to the COVID-19 epidemic: Evidence from state and local government actions. American Journal of Health Economics, 7(4), 361–404. https://doi.org/10.1086/716197
Gurgel, A. do M., Santos, C. C. S. dos, Alves, K. P. de S., Araujo, J. M. de, & Leal, V. S. (2020). Government strategies to ensure the human right to adequate and healthy food facing the Covid-19 pandemic in Brazil. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 25, 4945–4956. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-812320202512.33912020
Isaac, T., & Sadanandan, R. (2020). COVID-19, public health system and local governance in Kerala. Economic and Political Weekly, 55(21), 35–40. https://www.epw.in/journal/2020/21/perspectives/covid-19-public-health-system-and-local-governance.html
Israelsen, S., & Malji, A. (2021). COVID-19 in India: A comparative analysis of the Kerala and Gujarat development models’ initial responses. Progress in Development Studies, 21(4), 397–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/14649934211030462
Jacob, M., & John, J. (2016). Local governments and the public health delivery system in Kerala: Lessons of collaborative governance. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Jayalakshmi, R., & Suhita, C. (2017). Home-based palliative services under two local self-government institutions of Kerala, India: An assessment of compliance with policy and guidelines to local self-government institutions. Indian Journal of Palliative Care, 23(1), 65. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-1075.197947
Kamara, F., Mokuwa, G. A., & Richards, P. (2022). Keeping Ebola at bay: Public authority and ceremonial competence in rural Sierra Leone. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 60(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X21000422
Kodiyat MS, B. A., Siagian, A. H., & Andryan, A. (2020). The effect of centralistic political party policies in selection of regional heads in Medan City. Indonesian Journal of Education, Social Sciences and Research (IJESSR), 1(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.30596/ijessr.v1i1.4899
Kodoth, P. (2021). How Kudumbasree forged a massive network of neighbourhood groups: Micro politics and the strategies of women in Kerala. Center for Development Studies. http://192.168.2.12:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/593
Krishnakumar, R. (2020, March 22). Kerala model [HTML]. Frontline. https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover-story/article31130309.ece
Kumar, D. V. (2020, February 2). Fight against non-communicable diseases gets a fillip in Kerala [HTML]. The New Indian Express. https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2020/Feb/02/fight-against-non-communicable-diseases-gets-a-fillip-in-kerala-2097872.html
Kutty, V. R. (2000). Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India. Health Policy and Planning, 15(1), 103–109. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/15.1.103
Laochankham, S., Kamnuansilpa, P., & Lowatcharin, G. (2021). Locally driven action in pandemic control: The case of Khon Kaen Province, Thailand. Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs, 43(1), 8–14. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/70/article/796889
Mahapatra, R. (2020, April 24). Panchayati Raj Day: Pandemic and the panchayats [HTML]. Down To Earth. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/governance/panchayati-raj-day-pandemic-and-the-panchayats-70674
Mardones, F. O., Rich, K. M., Boden, L. A., Moreno-Switt, A. I., Caipo, M. L., Zimin-Veselkoff, N., Alateeqi, A. M., & Baltenweck, I. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic and global food security. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.578508
Maya, C. (2016, May 11). Public health expenditure high in State [HTML]. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/public-health-expenditure-high-in-state/article8588010.ece
Meckelburg, R. (2021). Indonesia’s COVID-19 emergency: Where the local is central. Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs, 43(1), 31–37. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/70/article/796892
Mohanty, S., Venkatarao, E., & Yasobant, S. (2020). Non-communicable disease care and physical activity promotion in India: Analysis of recent policies, guidelines and workplans. Family Medicine and Community Health, 8(2), e000206. https://doi.org/10.1136/fmch-2019-000206
Muthukumar, P., & Salini, R. (2021). Impact of COVID 19 on production and productivity of Kerala agriculture sector. IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, 8(6), 155–162. https://ijiset.com/vol8/v8s6/IJISET_V8_I06_16.pdf
Nemec, J., & Špaček, D. (2020). The Covid-19 pandemic and local government finance: Czechia and Slovakia. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 32(5), 837–846. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBAFM-07-2020-0109
OECD. (2020). COVID-19 and fiscal relations across levels of government (OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19)) [OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19)]. https://doi.org/10.1787/ab438b9f-en
Ortega, F., & Béhague, D. (2022). Contested leadership and the governance of COVID-19 in Brazil: The role of local government and community activism. Global Public Health, 17(4), 483–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2022.2028304
Pandey, V., Singh, S., & Kumar, D. (2022). COVID-19, information management by local governments, and food consumption. Food Policy, 110, 102278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2022.102278
Parker, M., Hanson, T. M., Vandi, A., Babawo, L. S., & Allen, T. (2019). Ebola and public authority: Saving loved ones in Sierra Leone. Medical Anthropology, 38(5), 440–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/01459740.2019.1609472
Paul, S. K. (2022). Consequences of Covid–19 and role of Gram Panchayats in tackling the pandemic situation: Some highlights from West Bengal. NAVEIÑ REET: Nordic Journal of Law and Social Research, 12, 63–74. https://tidsskrift.dk/nnjlsr/article/view/135352
Permanasari, V. Y., Nadjib, M., Sjaaf, A. C., Besral, & Anjani, A. A. (2022). The response of local governments in financing related to the COVID-19 pandemic: A literature review. Journal of Public Health Research, 11(2), jphr.2021.2620. https://doi.org/10.4081/jphr.2021.2620
Ramakumar, R., & Eapen, M. (2022). The legacy of public action and gender-sensitivity of the pandemic response in Kerala State, India. Economia Politica, 39(1), 271–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40888-021-00249-1
Rao, S. P. R. (1993). Administration of primary health centres in India: A study from the three southern states. Mittal Publications.
Resende, T. C., Paschoalotto, M. A. C., Peckham, S., Passador, C. S., & Passador, J. L. (2021). How did the UK government face the global COVID-19 pandemic? Revista de Administração Pública, 55, 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-761220200418
Richards, P. (2019, June 28). Ebola and chiefs in Sierra Leone [HTML]. Africa at LSE. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2019/06/28/ebola-chiefs-sierra-leone-research/
Sadanandan, R. (2020). Kerala’s response to COVID-19. Indian Journal of Public Health, 64(6), 99. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijph.IJPH_459_20
Saigal, K. (2020, April 24). PM Modi inaugurates key rural schemes on National Panchayati Raj Day [HTML]. Invest India. https://www.investindia.gov.in/team-india-blogs/pm-modi-inaugurates-key-rural-schemes-national-panchayati-raj-day
Sukhwani, V., Deshkar, S., & Shaw, R. (2020). COVID-19 lockdown, food systems and urban–rural partnership: Case of Nagpur, India. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(16), 5710. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165710
Swain, S., & Patoju, S. K. S. (2024). Role of social enterprises in bridging healthcare sector gap: A case of ‘Santhwanam.’ Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Emerging Economies, 10(1), 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/23939575231210185
Thakur, J. S., Paika, R., & Singh, S. (2020). Burden of noncommunicable diseases and implementation challenges of National NCD Programmes in India. Medical Journal Armed Forces India, 76(3), 261–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mjafi.2020.03.002
Venugopalan, M., Bastian, B. L., & Viswanathan, P. K. (2021). The role of multi-actor engagement for women’s empowerment and entrepreneurship in Kerala, India. Administrative Sciences, 11(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci11010031
Wollmann, H. (2004). Urban leadership in German local politics: The rise, role and performance of the directly elected (chief executive) mayor. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 28(1), 150–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0309-1317.2004.00508.x
Wright, C. (2020). Local government fighting Covid-19. The Round Table, 109(3), 338–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/00358533.2020.1763017
References
Abrori, F. (2021). The role of local governments in regional financial management for the handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. Yurispruden: Jurnal Fakultas Hukum Universitas Islam Malang, 4(2), 208–222. https://doi.org/10.33474/yur.v4i2.10250
Ahmad, E. (2022). Multilevel responses to risks, shocks and pandemics: Lessons from the evolving Chinese governance model. Journal of Chinese Governance, 7(2), 291–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/23812346.2020.1813395
Ahrens, T., & Ferry, L. (2020). Financial resilience of English local government in the aftermath of COVID-19. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 32(5), 813–823. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBAFM-07-2020-0098
AmritKiran, M., Suresh, A., & Jayashree, S. (2018). A study on Kudumbashree in Kerala. International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 118, 4195–4201. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333164090_A_Study_on_Kudumbashree_in_Kerala
Anttiroiko, A.-V. (2021). Successful government responses to the pandemic: Contextualizing national and urban responses to the COVID-19 outbreak in East and West. International Journal of E-Planning Research, 10(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJEPR.20210401.oa1
Billava, N. (2021). Role of Gram Panchayats in tackling COVID-19: A case study from Karnataka. Journal of Rural Development, 40(1), 80–93. https://doi.org/10.25175/jrd/2021/v40/i1/166504
Blair, H. (2000). Participation and accountability at the periphery: Democratic local governance in six countries. World Development, 28(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00109-6
Chathukulam, J., & John, M. S. (2002). Five years of participatory planning in Kerala: Rhetoric and reality. Economic and Political Weekly, 37(49), 4917–4926. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4412934
Chathukulam, J., & Joseph, M. (2022). Management of the COVID-19 pandemic in Kerala through the lens of state capacity and clientelism (WIDER Working Paper 2022; WIDER Working Paper, Vol. 2022). UNU-WIDER. https://doi.org/10.35188/UNU-WIDER/2022/191-4
Chathukulam, J., & Tharamangalam, J. (2021). The Kerala model in the time of COVID19: Rethinking state, society and democracy. World Development, 137, 105207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105207
Dutta, A., & Fischer, H. W. (2021). The local governance of COVID-19: Disease prevention and social security in rural India. World Development, 138, 105234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105234
Green, D., & Loualiche, E. (2021a). State and local government employment in the COVID-19 crisis. Journal of Public Economics, 193, 104321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104321
Green, D., & Loualiche, E. (2021b). State and local government employment in the COVID-19 crisis. Journal of Public Economics, 193, 104321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104321
Gupta, S., Nguyen, T., Raman, S., Lee, B., Lozano-Rojas, F., Bento, A., Simon, K., & Wing, C. (2021). Tracking public and private responses to the COVID-19 epidemic: Evidence from state and local government actions. American Journal of Health Economics, 7(4), 361–404. https://doi.org/10.1086/716197
Gurgel, A. do M., Santos, C. C. S. dos, Alves, K. P. de S., Araujo, J. M. de, & Leal, V. S. (2020). Government strategies to ensure the human right to adequate and healthy food facing the Covid-19 pandemic in Brazil. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 25, 4945–4956. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-812320202512.33912020
Isaac, T., & Sadanandan, R. (2020). COVID-19, public health system and local governance in Kerala. Economic and Political Weekly, 55(21), 35–40. https://www.epw.in/journal/2020/21/perspectives/covid-19-public-health-system-and-local-governance.html
Israelsen, S., & Malji, A. (2021). COVID-19 in India: A comparative analysis of the Kerala and Gujarat development models’ initial responses. Progress in Development Studies, 21(4), 397–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/14649934211030462
Jacob, M., & John, J. (2016). Local governments and the public health delivery system in Kerala: Lessons of collaborative governance. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Jayalakshmi, R., & Suhita, C. (2017). Home-based palliative services under two local self-government institutions of Kerala, India: An assessment of compliance with policy and guidelines to local self-government institutions. Indian Journal of Palliative Care, 23(1), 65. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-1075.197947
Kamara, F., Mokuwa, G. A., & Richards, P. (2022). Keeping Ebola at bay: Public authority and ceremonial competence in rural Sierra Leone. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 60(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X21000422
Kodiyat MS, B. A., Siagian, A. H., & Andryan, A. (2020). The effect of centralistic political party policies in selection of regional heads in Medan City. Indonesian Journal of Education, Social Sciences and Research (IJESSR), 1(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.30596/ijessr.v1i1.4899
Kodoth, P. (2021). How Kudumbasree forged a massive network of neighbourhood groups: Micro politics and the strategies of women in Kerala. Center for Development Studies. http://192.168.2.12:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/593
Krishnakumar, R. (2020, March 22). Kerala model [HTML]. Frontline. https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover-story/article31130309.ece
Kumar, D. V. (2020, February 2). Fight against non-communicable diseases gets a fillip in Kerala [HTML]. The New Indian Express. https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2020/Feb/02/fight-against-non-communicable-diseases-gets-a-fillip-in-kerala-2097872.html
Kutty, V. R. (2000). Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India. Health Policy and Planning, 15(1), 103–109. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/15.1.103
Laochankham, S., Kamnuansilpa, P., & Lowatcharin, G. (2021). Locally driven action in pandemic control: The case of Khon Kaen Province, Thailand. Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs, 43(1), 8–14. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/70/article/796889
Mahapatra, R. (2020, April 24). Panchayati Raj Day: Pandemic and the panchayats [HTML]. Down To Earth. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/governance/panchayati-raj-day-pandemic-and-the-panchayats-70674
Mardones, F. O., Rich, K. M., Boden, L. A., Moreno-Switt, A. I., Caipo, M. L., Zimin-Veselkoff, N., Alateeqi, A. M., & Baltenweck, I. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic and global food security. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.578508
Maya, C. (2016, May 11). Public health expenditure high in State [HTML]. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/public-health-expenditure-high-in-state/article8588010.ece
Meckelburg, R. (2021). Indonesia’s COVID-19 emergency: Where the local is central. Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs, 43(1), 31–37. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/70/article/796892
Mohanty, S., Venkatarao, E., & Yasobant, S. (2020). Non-communicable disease care and physical activity promotion in India: Analysis of recent policies, guidelines and workplans. Family Medicine and Community Health, 8(2), e000206. https://doi.org/10.1136/fmch-2019-000206
Muthukumar, P., & Salini, R. (2021). Impact of COVID 19 on production and productivity of Kerala agriculture sector. IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, 8(6), 155–162. https://ijiset.com/vol8/v8s6/IJISET_V8_I06_16.pdf
Nemec, J., & Špaček, D. (2020). The Covid-19 pandemic and local government finance: Czechia and Slovakia. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 32(5), 837–846. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBAFM-07-2020-0109
OECD. (2020). COVID-19 and fiscal relations across levels of government (OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19)) [OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19)]. https://doi.org/10.1787/ab438b9f-en
Ortega, F., & Béhague, D. (2022). Contested leadership and the governance of COVID-19 in Brazil: The role of local government and community activism. Global Public Health, 17(4), 483–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2022.2028304
Pandey, V., Singh, S., & Kumar, D. (2022). COVID-19, information management by local governments, and food consumption. Food Policy, 110, 102278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2022.102278
Parker, M., Hanson, T. M., Vandi, A., Babawo, L. S., & Allen, T. (2019). Ebola and public authority: Saving loved ones in Sierra Leone. Medical Anthropology, 38(5), 440–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/01459740.2019.1609472
Paul, S. K. (2022). Consequences of Covid–19 and role of Gram Panchayats in tackling the pandemic situation: Some highlights from West Bengal. NAVEIÑ REET: Nordic Journal of Law and Social Research, 12, 63–74. https://tidsskrift.dk/nnjlsr/article/view/135352
Permanasari, V. Y., Nadjib, M., Sjaaf, A. C., Besral, & Anjani, A. A. (2022). The response of local governments in financing related to the COVID-19 pandemic: A literature review. Journal of Public Health Research, 11(2), jphr.2021.2620. https://doi.org/10.4081/jphr.2021.2620
Ramakumar, R., & Eapen, M. (2022). The legacy of public action and gender-sensitivity of the pandemic response in Kerala State, India. Economia Politica, 39(1), 271–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40888-021-00249-1
Rao, S. P. R. (1993). Administration of primary health centres in India: A study from the three southern states. Mittal Publications.
Resende, T. C., Paschoalotto, M. A. C., Peckham, S., Passador, C. S., & Passador, J. L. (2021). How did the UK government face the global COVID-19 pandemic? Revista de Administração Pública, 55, 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-761220200418
Richards, P. (2019, June 28). Ebola and chiefs in Sierra Leone [HTML]. Africa at LSE. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2019/06/28/ebola-chiefs-sierra-leone-research/
Sadanandan, R. (2020). Kerala’s response to COVID-19. Indian Journal of Public Health, 64(6), 99. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijph.IJPH_459_20
Saigal, K. (2020, April 24). PM Modi inaugurates key rural schemes on National Panchayati Raj Day [HTML]. Invest India. https://www.investindia.gov.in/team-india-blogs/pm-modi-inaugurates-key-rural-schemes-national-panchayati-raj-day
Sukhwani, V., Deshkar, S., & Shaw, R. (2020). COVID-19 lockdown, food systems and urban–rural partnership: Case of Nagpur, India. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(16), 5710. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165710
Swain, S., & Patoju, S. K. S. (2024). Role of social enterprises in bridging healthcare sector gap: A case of ‘Santhwanam.’ Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Emerging Economies, 10(1), 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/23939575231210185
Thakur, J. S., Paika, R., & Singh, S. (2020). Burden of noncommunicable diseases and implementation challenges of National NCD Programmes in India. Medical Journal Armed Forces India, 76(3), 261–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mjafi.2020.03.002
Venugopalan, M., Bastian, B. L., & Viswanathan, P. K. (2021). The role of multi-actor engagement for women’s empowerment and entrepreneurship in Kerala, India. Administrative Sciences, 11(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci11010031
Wollmann, H. (2004). Urban leadership in German local politics: The rise, role and performance of the directly elected (chief executive) mayor. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 28(1), 150–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0309-1317.2004.00508.x
Wright, C. (2020). Local government fighting Covid-19. The Round Table, 109(3), 338–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/00358533.2020.1763017