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Abstract
This research sheds light on Western use of educational Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA) as an important weapon to eradicate Native American culture. Although there have been huge research on Native American Culture and Euro-American oppression of Native Americans, very small is known about the ideological method of European oppression. The picture that appears from Louise Erdrich’s LaRose is that for Europeans, education is a tool to enlighten the natives. However, for the natives, education is a process of transforming their culture into Western ideology promoting Western socio-cultural norms. Ideological oppression is more adverse than subdued oppression. This study analyses Louis Erdrich’s Larose through Althusser’s theory of ISA which means that people are controlled firstly by ideology, then by constraint. Europeans used both suppression and ideology to obliterate their culture by which they could assimilate them, and there would be a minor risk of resistance. As a result, Europeans have tried to eradicate the religion and culture of Native Americans through education to establish their own culture and religion. Louise Eldritch uncovers the dark side of the educational civilization process, which this research shall analyze through Althusser’s theory of ISA.
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References
Alexie, S. (2008). Indian killer (2nd edition). Grove Press.
Alexie, S. (2009). The absolutely true diary of a part-time Indian (Reprint edition). Little, Brown Books for Young Readers.
Allison, A. (1991). Japanese mothers and Obentōs: The lunch-box as ideological state apparatus. Anthropological Quarterly, 64(4), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.2307/3317212
Althusser, L. (2014). On the reproduction of capitalism: Ideology and ideological state apparatuses (G. M. Goshgarian, Trans.; Later printing edition). Verso.
Aveling, N. (2012). Indigenous studies: A matter of social justice; A matter of urgency. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 6(2), 99–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2010.519010
Beidler, P., & Barton, G. (2006). A reader’s guide to the novels of Louise Erdrich (Revised and Expanded edition). University of Missouri.
Boer, R. (2007). Althusser’s Catholic Marxism. Rethinking Marxism, 19(4), 469–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/08935690701571128
Bubar, R., & Thurman, P. J. (2004). Violence against native women. Social Justice, 31(4 (98)), 70–86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29768276
Chalcraft, E. L. (2007). Assimilation’s agent: My life as a superintendent in the Indian boarding school system (C. C. Collins, Ed.; Reprint edition). University of Nebraska Press.
Child, B. J. (2000). Boarding school seasons: American Indian families, 1900-1940. University of Nebraska Press.
Clark, S., & Wylie, R. (2021). Surviving a cultural genocide: Perspectives of indigenous elders on the transfer of traditional values. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 8(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/663
Dalal, N. (2011). The impact of colonial contact on the cultural heritage of native American Indian people. Diffusion- The UCLan Journal of Undergraduate Research, 4(2), 1–10. https://www.bcur.org/journals/index.php/Diffusion/article/download/131/112
Davis, J. (2001). American Indian boarding school experiences: Recent studies from native perspectives. OAH Magazine of History, 15(2), 20–22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25163421
Deloria, V. (1985). Behind the trail of broken treaties: An Indian declaration of independence (Revised edition). University of Texas Press.
Deloria, V. (1988). Custer died for your sins: An Indian manifesto (Later Printing edition). University of Oklahoma Press.
Deloria, V. (1999). For this land: Writings on religion in America (1st edition). Routledge.
Deloria, V. (2012). Indians of the Pacific Northwest: From the coming of the white man to the present day (Reprint edition). Fulcrum Publishing.
Deyhle, D., & Swisher, K. (1997). Research in American Indian and Alaska Native education: From assimilation to self-determination. Review of Research in Education, 22, 113–194. https://doi.org/10.2307/1167375
Erdrich, L. (2016). LaRose (Large type / Large print edition). HarperLuxe.
Ferretter, L. (2007). Louis Althusser (0 ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203358726
Freng, A., Freng, S., & Moore, H. A. (2006). Models of American Indian education: Cultural inclusion and the family/community/school linkage. Sociological Focus, 39(1), 55–74. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20832284
Gill, H. B. (2004). Colonial germ warfare. The Colonial Williamsburg Journal, Spring 2004. https://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/Foundation/journal/Spring04/warfare.cfm
Gilman, P. (2016, May 11). A tear in the fabric of life in Louise Erdrich’s ‘LaRose’—The Boston Globe [HTML]. BostonGlobe.Com. https://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/2016/05/11/tear-fabric-life-louise-erdrich-larose/pa33UkXg9fNndzW9PjJTeL/story.html
Glotfelty, C., & Fromm, H. (Eds.). (1996). The ecocriticism reader: Landmarks in literary ecology (0 edition). University of Georgia Press.
Hertzel, L. (2016, June 7). Louise Erdrich puts family at the heart of ‘La Rose’ [HTML]. The Mercury News. https://www.pressreader.com/usa/the-mercury-news/20160612/283102773329253
Hightower-Langston, D. (2002). The Native American world (1st edition). Wiley.
Hutchings, K. (2016). Cultural genocide and the First Nations of Upper Canada: Some Romantic-era roots of Canada’s residential school system. European Romantic Review, 27(3), 301–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509585.2016.1163787
Juneau, S. (2001). A history and foundation of American Indian education policy (p. 61). Montana State Office of Public Instruction. http://www.opi.state.mt.us/PDF/IndPolicyHistory.pdf
Klimek-Dominiak, E. (2009). ‘They came like a lion’ - Sarah Winnemucca Hopkin’s “Life Among the Piutes: Their Wrongs and Claims” as a personal and tribal account of Native American and Euro American contacts. Belgrade English Language and Literature Studies, 1(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.18485/bells.2009.1.14
Kurup, S. (2015). Understanding Louise Erdrich. University of South Carolina Press.
Leask, I. (2018). Ideology and the ‘Multitude of the Classroom’: Spinoza and Althusser at school. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 50(9), 858–867. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2017.1382352
Lee, W. E. (2007). Peace chiefs and blood revenge: Patterns of restraint in Native American warfare, 1500–1800. The Journal of Military History, 71(3), 701–741. https://doi.org/10.1353/jmh.2007.0216
Levinson, B. A., & Holland, D. C. (1996). The cultural production of the educated person: An introduction. In B. A. Levinson, D. E. Foley, & D. C. Holland (Eds.), The cultural production of the educated person: Critical ethnographies of schooling and local practice. SUNY Press. https://sunypress.edu/Books/T/The-Cultural-Production-of-the-Educated-Person
Lomawaima, K. T., & Ostler, J. (2018). Reconsidering Richard Henry Pratt: Cultural genocide and native liberation in an era of racial oppression. Journal of American Indian Education, 57(1), 79–100. https://doi.org/10.5749/jamerindieduc.57.1.0079
Lowe, J. R., Kelley, M. N., & Hong, O. (2019). Native American adolescent narrative written stories of stress. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 32(1), 16–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcap.12222
Marr, C. (2004). Native American survival in a Colonial United States. Nebraska Anthropologist, 19, 32–37. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nebanthro/66
Martinez, D. (2014). School culture and American Indian educational outcomes. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116, 199–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.194
McCarty, T. L. (2008). American Indian, Alaska native, and native Hawaiian education in the era of standardization and NCLB — An introduction. Journal of American Indian Education, 47(1), 1–9. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24398503
McNickle, D. (1949). They came here first: The epic of the American Indian (First Edition). J. B. Lippincott Company.
McNickle, D. (1973). Native American tribalism: Indian survivals and renewals (Revised edition). Oxford Univ Pr.
McNickle, D. (1978). The surrounded (2nd Printing edition). University of New Mexico Press.
McNickle, D. (1988). Wind from an enemy sky (Third Printing edition). University of New Mexico Press.
Mitchell, S. H. (2017). The shadows of assimilation: Narratives and legacies of the Carlisle Indian Boarding School, 1879-1918 [Master’s thesis, California State University, Fullerton]. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12680/9p290b88b
Murtaza, G., & Bhatti, S. A. (2015). Conflict between Euro-American and Native American attitudes towards nature: An ecocritical study of Tracks and Love Medicine by Louise Erdrich. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 11(8), Article 8. https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/5269
Native American Rights Fund. (2019). Trigger points: Current state of research on history, impacts, and healing related to the United States’ Indian industrial/boarding school policy. Native American Rights Fund. https://peacemaking.narf.org/2019/10/trigger-points/
Noodin, M. (2018). LaRose by Louise Erdrich. Native American and Indigenous Studies, 5(1), 223–225. https://doi.org/10.5749/natiindistudj.5.1.0223
Peterson, R. (2012). The impact of historical boarding school on native American families and parenting role [HTML]. The McNair Scholars Journal of the University of Wisconsin Superior. https://minds.wisconsin.edu/bitstream/handle/1793/66821/Peterson.pdf?sequence=8&isAllowed=y
Reyhner, J. (1992). American Indian cultures and school success. Journal of American Indian Education, 32(1), 30–39. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24398346
Sanders, K. (1998). A healthy balance: Religion, identity, and community in Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine. MELUS, 23(2), 129–155. https://doi.org/10.2307/468016
Schneider, L. (1992). Love Medicine: A metaphor for forgiveness. Studies in American Indian Literatures, 4(1), 1–13. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20736580
Silko, L. M. (1992). Almanac of the dead (First Thus edition). Penguin Books.
Silko, L. M. (1997). Yellow woman and a beauty of the spirit (1st edition). Simon & Schuster.
Silko, L. M. (2006). Ceremony (Anniversary edition). Penguin Books.
Stookey, L. L. (1999). Louise Erdrich: A critical companion. Greenwood.
Trafzer, C. E., & Keller, J. A. (Eds.). (2006). Boarding school blues: Revisiting american indian educational experiences. Bison Books.
Wahab, S., & Olson, L. (2004). Intimate partner violence and sexual assault in native american communities. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 5(4), 353–366. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26636674
Welch, J. (2008a). The death of Jim Loney. Penguin Classics.
Welch, J. (2008b). Winter in the blood (Revised ed. edition). Penguin Classics.
Welch, J. (2011). Fools crow (Revised ed. edition). Penguin Classics.
Whitt, S. A. (2020). False promises: Race, power, and the Chimera of Indian assimilation, 1879-1934 [Master’s thesis, UC Berkeley]. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7fw88672
Yeboha, D. A. (2005). Education among Native Americans in the period before and after contact with Europeans: An overview. http://www.letras.ufmg.br/padrao_cms/documentos/profs/marcel/yeboah_200502.doc
Young, W. (2010). An investigation of exemplary teaching practices of teachers of Native American students. UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones, 899. https://doi.org/10.34917/2242918
References
Alexie, S. (2008). Indian killer (2nd edition). Grove Press.
Alexie, S. (2009). The absolutely true diary of a part-time Indian (Reprint edition). Little, Brown Books for Young Readers.
Allison, A. (1991). Japanese mothers and Obentōs: The lunch-box as ideological state apparatus. Anthropological Quarterly, 64(4), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.2307/3317212
Althusser, L. (2014). On the reproduction of capitalism: Ideology and ideological state apparatuses (G. M. Goshgarian, Trans.; Later printing edition). Verso.
Aveling, N. (2012). Indigenous studies: A matter of social justice; A matter of urgency. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 6(2), 99–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2010.519010
Beidler, P., & Barton, G. (2006). A reader’s guide to the novels of Louise Erdrich (Revised and Expanded edition). University of Missouri.
Boer, R. (2007). Althusser’s Catholic Marxism. Rethinking Marxism, 19(4), 469–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/08935690701571128
Bubar, R., & Thurman, P. J. (2004). Violence against native women. Social Justice, 31(4 (98)), 70–86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29768276
Chalcraft, E. L. (2007). Assimilation’s agent: My life as a superintendent in the Indian boarding school system (C. C. Collins, Ed.; Reprint edition). University of Nebraska Press.
Child, B. J. (2000). Boarding school seasons: American Indian families, 1900-1940. University of Nebraska Press.
Clark, S., & Wylie, R. (2021). Surviving a cultural genocide: Perspectives of indigenous elders on the transfer of traditional values. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 8(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/663
Dalal, N. (2011). The impact of colonial contact on the cultural heritage of native American Indian people. Diffusion- The UCLan Journal of Undergraduate Research, 4(2), 1–10. https://www.bcur.org/journals/index.php/Diffusion/article/download/131/112
Davis, J. (2001). American Indian boarding school experiences: Recent studies from native perspectives. OAH Magazine of History, 15(2), 20–22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25163421
Deloria, V. (1985). Behind the trail of broken treaties: An Indian declaration of independence (Revised edition). University of Texas Press.
Deloria, V. (1988). Custer died for your sins: An Indian manifesto (Later Printing edition). University of Oklahoma Press.
Deloria, V. (1999). For this land: Writings on religion in America (1st edition). Routledge.
Deloria, V. (2012). Indians of the Pacific Northwest: From the coming of the white man to the present day (Reprint edition). Fulcrum Publishing.
Deyhle, D., & Swisher, K. (1997). Research in American Indian and Alaska Native education: From assimilation to self-determination. Review of Research in Education, 22, 113–194. https://doi.org/10.2307/1167375
Erdrich, L. (2016). LaRose (Large type / Large print edition). HarperLuxe.
Ferretter, L. (2007). Louis Althusser (0 ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203358726
Freng, A., Freng, S., & Moore, H. A. (2006). Models of American Indian education: Cultural inclusion and the family/community/school linkage. Sociological Focus, 39(1), 55–74. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20832284
Gill, H. B. (2004). Colonial germ warfare. The Colonial Williamsburg Journal, Spring 2004. https://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/Foundation/journal/Spring04/warfare.cfm
Gilman, P. (2016, May 11). A tear in the fabric of life in Louise Erdrich’s ‘LaRose’—The Boston Globe [HTML]. BostonGlobe.Com. https://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/2016/05/11/tear-fabric-life-louise-erdrich-larose/pa33UkXg9fNndzW9PjJTeL/story.html
Glotfelty, C., & Fromm, H. (Eds.). (1996). The ecocriticism reader: Landmarks in literary ecology (0 edition). University of Georgia Press.
Hertzel, L. (2016, June 7). Louise Erdrich puts family at the heart of ‘La Rose’ [HTML]. The Mercury News. https://www.pressreader.com/usa/the-mercury-news/20160612/283102773329253
Hightower-Langston, D. (2002). The Native American world (1st edition). Wiley.
Hutchings, K. (2016). Cultural genocide and the First Nations of Upper Canada: Some Romantic-era roots of Canada’s residential school system. European Romantic Review, 27(3), 301–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509585.2016.1163787
Juneau, S. (2001). A history and foundation of American Indian education policy (p. 61). Montana State Office of Public Instruction. http://www.opi.state.mt.us/PDF/IndPolicyHistory.pdf
Klimek-Dominiak, E. (2009). ‘They came like a lion’ - Sarah Winnemucca Hopkin’s “Life Among the Piutes: Their Wrongs and Claims” as a personal and tribal account of Native American and Euro American contacts. Belgrade English Language and Literature Studies, 1(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.18485/bells.2009.1.14
Kurup, S. (2015). Understanding Louise Erdrich. University of South Carolina Press.
Leask, I. (2018). Ideology and the ‘Multitude of the Classroom’: Spinoza and Althusser at school. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 50(9), 858–867. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2017.1382352
Lee, W. E. (2007). Peace chiefs and blood revenge: Patterns of restraint in Native American warfare, 1500–1800. The Journal of Military History, 71(3), 701–741. https://doi.org/10.1353/jmh.2007.0216
Levinson, B. A., & Holland, D. C. (1996). The cultural production of the educated person: An introduction. In B. A. Levinson, D. E. Foley, & D. C. Holland (Eds.), The cultural production of the educated person: Critical ethnographies of schooling and local practice. SUNY Press. https://sunypress.edu/Books/T/The-Cultural-Production-of-the-Educated-Person
Lomawaima, K. T., & Ostler, J. (2018). Reconsidering Richard Henry Pratt: Cultural genocide and native liberation in an era of racial oppression. Journal of American Indian Education, 57(1), 79–100. https://doi.org/10.5749/jamerindieduc.57.1.0079
Lowe, J. R., Kelley, M. N., & Hong, O. (2019). Native American adolescent narrative written stories of stress. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 32(1), 16–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcap.12222
Marr, C. (2004). Native American survival in a Colonial United States. Nebraska Anthropologist, 19, 32–37. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nebanthro/66
Martinez, D. (2014). School culture and American Indian educational outcomes. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116, 199–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.194
McCarty, T. L. (2008). American Indian, Alaska native, and native Hawaiian education in the era of standardization and NCLB — An introduction. Journal of American Indian Education, 47(1), 1–9. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24398503
McNickle, D. (1949). They came here first: The epic of the American Indian (First Edition). J. B. Lippincott Company.
McNickle, D. (1973). Native American tribalism: Indian survivals and renewals (Revised edition). Oxford Univ Pr.
McNickle, D. (1978). The surrounded (2nd Printing edition). University of New Mexico Press.
McNickle, D. (1988). Wind from an enemy sky (Third Printing edition). University of New Mexico Press.
Mitchell, S. H. (2017). The shadows of assimilation: Narratives and legacies of the Carlisle Indian Boarding School, 1879-1918 [Master’s thesis, California State University, Fullerton]. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12680/9p290b88b
Murtaza, G., & Bhatti, S. A. (2015). Conflict between Euro-American and Native American attitudes towards nature: An ecocritical study of Tracks and Love Medicine by Louise Erdrich. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 11(8), Article 8. https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/5269
Native American Rights Fund. (2019). Trigger points: Current state of research on history, impacts, and healing related to the United States’ Indian industrial/boarding school policy. Native American Rights Fund. https://peacemaking.narf.org/2019/10/trigger-points/
Noodin, M. (2018). LaRose by Louise Erdrich. Native American and Indigenous Studies, 5(1), 223–225. https://doi.org/10.5749/natiindistudj.5.1.0223
Peterson, R. (2012). The impact of historical boarding school on native American families and parenting role [HTML]. The McNair Scholars Journal of the University of Wisconsin Superior. https://minds.wisconsin.edu/bitstream/handle/1793/66821/Peterson.pdf?sequence=8&isAllowed=y
Reyhner, J. (1992). American Indian cultures and school success. Journal of American Indian Education, 32(1), 30–39. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24398346
Sanders, K. (1998). A healthy balance: Religion, identity, and community in Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine. MELUS, 23(2), 129–155. https://doi.org/10.2307/468016
Schneider, L. (1992). Love Medicine: A metaphor for forgiveness. Studies in American Indian Literatures, 4(1), 1–13. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20736580
Silko, L. M. (1992). Almanac of the dead (First Thus edition). Penguin Books.
Silko, L. M. (1997). Yellow woman and a beauty of the spirit (1st edition). Simon & Schuster.
Silko, L. M. (2006). Ceremony (Anniversary edition). Penguin Books.
Stookey, L. L. (1999). Louise Erdrich: A critical companion. Greenwood.
Trafzer, C. E., & Keller, J. A. (Eds.). (2006). Boarding school blues: Revisiting american indian educational experiences. Bison Books.
Wahab, S., & Olson, L. (2004). Intimate partner violence and sexual assault in native american communities. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 5(4), 353–366. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26636674
Welch, J. (2008a). The death of Jim Loney. Penguin Classics.
Welch, J. (2008b). Winter in the blood (Revised ed. edition). Penguin Classics.
Welch, J. (2011). Fools crow (Revised ed. edition). Penguin Classics.
Whitt, S. A. (2020). False promises: Race, power, and the Chimera of Indian assimilation, 1879-1934 [Master’s thesis, UC Berkeley]. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7fw88672
Yeboha, D. A. (2005). Education among Native Americans in the period before and after contact with Europeans: An overview. http://www.letras.ufmg.br/padrao_cms/documentos/profs/marcel/yeboah_200502.doc
Young, W. (2010). An investigation of exemplary teaching practices of teachers of Native American students. UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones, 899. https://doi.org/10.34917/2242918