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Abstract
Terrorism, which has caused casualties, economic chaos, and even environmental damage, remains a challenge that must be overcome by the state, whether at the national or international levels. It is crystal clear from the initial circumstances that there is no agreed term to define terrorism, while a new terrorism movement has emerged. By infiltrating cyberspace and hacking critical infrastructure systems, cyberterrorism has generated a shared concern and a collective response by the international community. This article examines these recent developments, from the perspective of the two most progressive regional communities; European Union (EU) and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). With no comparative aim, the author shall try to suggest that although there are different approaches and legal frameworks shared by the two organizations, there is a common goal that is desired to counter cyberterrorism. This paper concludes that the approaches taken by the EU and ASEAN have the similar foundation of value in different ways. The EU places more emphasis on harmonization of national regulations that are supported by regulatory frameworks such as mutual legal assistance. Meanwhile, ASEAN prioritizes diplomatic coordination to increase the capacity and resources of member countries through the e-ASEAN process.
Key Words: Cyberterrorism; European Union; Association of Southeast Asian Nation
Abstrak
Terorisme yang telah menimbulkan korban jiwa, kekacauan ekonomi, bahkan kerusakan lingkungan, masih menjadi tantangan yang harus dihadapi oleh negara, baik di tingkat nasional maupun internasional. Tantangan tersebut terlihat jelas dari fakta awal bahwasanya belum ada kesepakatan dalam mendefinisikan terorisme, sedangkan pergerakan baru terorisme telah muncul. Dengan cara menyusup ke dunia maya dan meretas sistem infrastruktur penting, cyberterrorism telah menimbulkan keprihatinan bersama dan tanggapan kolektif oleh komunitas internasional. Artikel ini akan mengkaji perkembangan tersebut, dari sudut pandang dua komunitas regional yang paling progresif; European Union (EU) dan Association of Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN). Dengan tujuan yang tidak didasarkan untuk melakukan sebuah perbandingan, penulis akan mencoba menggagas bahwa meskipun terdapat pendekatan dan kerangka hukum yang berbeda yang dimiliki oleh kedua buah organisasi tersebut, terdapatnya tujuan bersama yang diinginkan untuk mengatasi cyberterrorism. Tulisan ini menyimpulkan bahwasanya pendekatan yang diambil oleh EU dan ASEAN memiliki landasan nilai yang sama dengan cara yang berbeda. EU lebih menekankan kepada harmonisasi peraturan nasional yang di dukung oleh kerangka pengaturan seperti mutual legal assistance. Sedangkan ASEAN lebih memprioritaskan koordinasi yang bersifat diplomatis untuk meningkatkan kapasitas dan sumber daya negara anggota melalui proses e-ASEAN.
Kata kata Kunci: Cyberterrorism; European Union; Association of Southeast Asian Nation
Keywords
Article Details
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References
- Book
- Akhgar Babak, Brewster Ber, Combatting Cybercrime and Cyberterrorism: challenges, trends, and priorities, Springer, Switzerland, 2016
- Anderson, et.al., Policing the European Union. Theory, Law, and Practice, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1995
- Bloom, M, Dying to Kill: the Allure of suicide terror, Columbia University Press, New York, 2005
- Calderoni, Fransesco, Organized Crime Legislation in the European Union, Harmonization and Approximation of Criminal Law, National Legislations and the EU Framework Decisions, on the Fight Against Organized Crime, Springer, Heidelberg, 2010
- Chen Thomas, M., Jarvis Lee, Macdonald Stuart, Cyberterrorism: understanding, assessment, and response, Springer, London, 2014
- Echle, Christian, Gunaratna Rohan, Rueppel Patrick, and Sarmah Meghan , (Eds.), Combatting Violent Extremism and Terrorism in Asia and Europe: From Cooperation to Collaboration, Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung and S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Stifung, Singapore, 2018
- Jones, Seth G. and Martin C. Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End: Lessons for Countering Al Qa’id, RAND, Washington, DC, 2008
- Lawrence, Lessig, Code, Basic Books, New York, 2006
- Libicki, C Martin, Conquest in Cyberspace: national security and information warfare, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 2007
- Mitsilegas, Valsamis, EU Criminal Law, Hart Publishing, Portland, 2009
- Padirac, De Bruno The International Dimensions of Cyberspace Law, Routledge, 2003
- Sandler Todd, Arce G Daniel, Transnational Terrorism, School of Economic, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2008
- Van Gerven, Van Dirk, Storm Paul, The European Company, Vol II, Cambridge University Press, 2008
- Weinberg, Leonard, Pedazhur Ami, and Hirsch-Hoefler Sivan, The Challenges of Conceptualizing Terrorism, Terrorism and Political Violence, Routledge, UK London, 2004
- Whittaker, Jason, The Cyberspace Handbook, Routledge, London, 2004
- Journal
- Conway, M, “Hackers as terrorist? Why it doesn’t compute”, Comput Fraud Secur, No. 12, 2003
- Daljit Singh, “The Terrorist Threat in Southeast Asia” in: ISEAS (Ed.), Southeast Asia 2003-2004, Regional Outlook
- Frank Gregory, “The EU's response to 9/11: a case study of institutional roles and policy processes with special reference to issues of accountability and human rights”, Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.17 No.1-2, 2005
- Gaibulloev, Khusrav, Sandler Todd, and Sul Donggyu, “Common Drivers of Transnational Terrorism: Principal Component Analysis”, Forthcoming Economic Inquiry, Western Economic Association International, Vol.51(1) 2013
- Oleksiewicz, Izabela, “A Legal Assessment of Management of the European Union Cyberterrorism Policy”, Modern Mangement Review, Vol.22 No.24/3, 2017
- Kittichaisaree, Kriangsak, Public International Law of Cyberspace, Law, Governance and Technology Series, Springer, Switzerland, Vol. 32, 2017
- Sebastian, Leonard C., “The ASEAN Response to Terrorism”, UNISCI Discussion Papers, Institute Defence and Strategic Studies, Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Carribean, Spain and Portugal, 2003
- Bogdanoski, Mitko, Drage Petreski, “Cyber Terrorism – Global Security Threat”, International Scientific Defence, Security and Peace Journal, 327.88:004.738.5-027.22, 2013
- Monica Den Boer, “9/11 and The Europeanisation of Anti-Terrorism Policy: A Critical Assessment”, Policy Papers No.6, Groupement d’études et de recherches, 2003
- Thomas, Nicholas, “Cyber Security in East Asia: Governing Anarchy”, Asian Security, Vol.5 No.1, 2009
- V, Orlova A, Moore JW,“Umbrellas” or “Building Blocks?”: defining international terrorism and transnational organized crime in international law”, Houston Journal of International Law, Vol.27 2005
- Rik Coolset, “EU Counterterrorism Strategy: value added or chimera?” Royal Institute of International Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 4, 2010
- Makarenko, Tamara, “Europe Adapts to new Terrorist Threats,” JIR, 2003
- Mbanaso, U.M. and E.S. Dandaura, ‘The Cyberspace: redefining a new world’, IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering, Vol.17 (3), 2015
- Treaties
- ASEAN Convention on Counter Terrorism, 13 January 2007
- Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13, 2008
- Other Legal Documents
- ASEAN Cyber Security Summit, Singapore, 17th August 2018
- ASEAN Declaration on Joint Action to Counter Terrorism, Brunei 5th of November 2001
- ASEAN Declaration on Transnational Crime Manila, 20 December 1997
- ASEAN Declaration to Prevent and Combat Cybercrime, 2017
- ASEAN Leaders’ Statement on Cybersecurity Cooperation, 2018
- ASEAN-United States of America Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat International Terrorism, Bandar Seri Begawan, 1st of August 2002
- Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, the European Agenda on Security, COM 185, Strasbourg, 2015
- Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA of 24 February 2005 on attacks against information systems (JOL EU L, No. 69, of 16 March 2005.)
- Council Framework Decision of June 13th on the European Arrest Warrant and the Surrender Procedure between Member States, 2002
- Directive 2014/41/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 3 April 2014 regarding the European Investigation Order in criminal matters
- Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council 2013/40/EU of 12 August 2013 on Attacks Against Information Systems and Replacing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA (JOL EU L 218 of 14 August 2013)
- Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council 2013/40/EU of 12 August 2013 on attacks against information systems and replacing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA (JOL EU L 218 of 14 August 2013)
- EU Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism (2002/475/JHA), 2002
- Joint Declaration of ASEAN and China on Cooperation in the Field of Non-Traditional Security Issues, 6th ASEAN-China Summit, Phnom Penh, 4th of November 2002
- United Nations General Assembly Resolution 51/210, Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, 17 December 1996
- Internet
- Dominika Giantas, Dimitrios Stergiou, “From Terrorism to Cyber-Terrorism: the case of ISIS”, SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3135927, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
- Dorothy E Denning, “A View of Cyberterrorism Five Years Later”, Calhoun: the NPS Institutional, https://calhoun.nps.edu/bitstream/handle/10945/ 37160/Cyberterror_2006.pdf?sequence=1, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
- E4J University Module Series: Counter-Terrorism, Module 5: Regional Counter-Terrorism Approaches, https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/terrorism/ module-5/key-issues/asian-region.html
- EUROPOL Counter Terrorism Centre (ECTC), https://www.europol.europa.eu/ newsroom/news/europol%25E209s-european-counter-terrorism-centre-strengthens-eu%25E209s-response-to-terror
- https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2015/07/13/pdrms-facebook-account-hacked/932533, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
- https://edition.cnn.com/2013/11/04/world/europe/spain-train-bombings-fast-facts/index.html, accessed on 18th of December 2019, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
- Malaysia Airlines website hacked by 'Cyber Caliphate', https://edition.cnn.com/2015/01/25/asia/malaysia-airlines-website-hacked/index.html, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
- Marguerite Borelli, ASEAN Counter-terrorism weaknesses: Analysis, Eurasia Review https://www.eurasiareview.com/16102017-asean-counter-terrorism-weaknesses-analysis/, accessed on 22nd of December 2019
- Rodolfo C. Severino, The ASEAN Way and the Rule of Law, at the International Law Conference on ASEAN Legal System and Regional Integration, Kuala Lumpur 3rd of September 2001, https://asean.org/?static_post=the-asean-way-and-the-rule-of-law Accessed on 1st of March 2021
- United States Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (2010, Joint Publication 1-02, by Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp1_02.pdf, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
- US Department of Justice, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin: Cyber Terrorism, http:// leb.fbi.gov/2011/november/leb-november-2011, accessed on 1st of March 2021
- World Social Science Forum (WSSF), Montreal, Canada, 2003 https://www.cybersecurityintelligence.com/blog/the-difference-between-Cyberspace-and-the-internet-2412.html accessed on 1st of March 2020,
- Miscellaneous
- Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy: a strong Britain in an age of uncertainty, Cm 7953, 2010
- CONTEST, The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism, Secretary of State for the Home Department by Command of Her Majesty, 2018
- Ester Herlin-Karnell & Claudio Matera, External dimensions of the EU counter-terrorism policy, Centre for the Law of EU External Relations, CLEER working papers 2014/2
- Frank Umbach, EU-ASEAN Political and Security Dialogue at the Beginning of the 21 Century: prospects for interregional cooperation on international terrorism, SSOAR Open Access Repository
- Haekal Al Asyari, The Cyberspace as a Common Heritage of Mankind: governing jurisdictional limitations of the internet by virtue of international law, Master Degree Thesis, University of Debrecen, 2020
- Keiran Hardy, George Williams, ‘What is Cyberterrorsim’? Computer and Internet Technology in Legal Definitions of Terrorism, 2014
- Reports on the APEC Technomart III, as contained in: Rodney Chester, “Crooks tipped to ride cyber crime wave,” The Courier Mail, November 2, 1999
- Russian-American Cybersecurity Summit, Helsinki, July 16 2018
- Sociedade Portugesa de Inovacao (SPI), “Overview of Cybersecurity Status in ASEAN and the EU”, Ref. Ares(2018)5582066 - 31/10/2018
- United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism, The Protection of Critical Infrastructure Against Terrorist Attacks: compendium of good practices, 2018
References
Book
Akhgar Babak, Brewster Ber, Combatting Cybercrime and Cyberterrorism: challenges, trends, and priorities, Springer, Switzerland, 2016
Anderson, et.al., Policing the European Union. Theory, Law, and Practice, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1995
Bloom, M, Dying to Kill: the Allure of suicide terror, Columbia University Press, New York, 2005
Calderoni, Fransesco, Organized Crime Legislation in the European Union, Harmonization and Approximation of Criminal Law, National Legislations and the EU Framework Decisions, on the Fight Against Organized Crime, Springer, Heidelberg, 2010
Chen Thomas, M., Jarvis Lee, Macdonald Stuart, Cyberterrorism: understanding, assessment, and response, Springer, London, 2014
Echle, Christian, Gunaratna Rohan, Rueppel Patrick, and Sarmah Meghan , (Eds.), Combatting Violent Extremism and Terrorism in Asia and Europe: From Cooperation to Collaboration, Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung and S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Stifung, Singapore, 2018
Jones, Seth G. and Martin C. Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End: Lessons for Countering Al Qa’id, RAND, Washington, DC, 2008
Lawrence, Lessig, Code, Basic Books, New York, 2006
Libicki, C Martin, Conquest in Cyberspace: national security and information warfare, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 2007
Mitsilegas, Valsamis, EU Criminal Law, Hart Publishing, Portland, 2009
Padirac, De Bruno The International Dimensions of Cyberspace Law, Routledge, 2003
Sandler Todd, Arce G Daniel, Transnational Terrorism, School of Economic, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2008
Van Gerven, Van Dirk, Storm Paul, The European Company, Vol II, Cambridge University Press, 2008
Weinberg, Leonard, Pedazhur Ami, and Hirsch-Hoefler Sivan, The Challenges of Conceptualizing Terrorism, Terrorism and Political Violence, Routledge, UK London, 2004
Whittaker, Jason, The Cyberspace Handbook, Routledge, London, 2004
Journal
Conway, M, “Hackers as terrorist? Why it doesn’t compute”, Comput Fraud Secur, No. 12, 2003
Daljit Singh, “The Terrorist Threat in Southeast Asia” in: ISEAS (Ed.), Southeast Asia 2003-2004, Regional Outlook
Frank Gregory, “The EU's response to 9/11: a case study of institutional roles and policy processes with special reference to issues of accountability and human rights”, Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.17 No.1-2, 2005
Gaibulloev, Khusrav, Sandler Todd, and Sul Donggyu, “Common Drivers of Transnational Terrorism: Principal Component Analysis”, Forthcoming Economic Inquiry, Western Economic Association International, Vol.51(1) 2013
Oleksiewicz, Izabela, “A Legal Assessment of Management of the European Union Cyberterrorism Policy”, Modern Mangement Review, Vol.22 No.24/3, 2017
Kittichaisaree, Kriangsak, Public International Law of Cyberspace, Law, Governance and Technology Series, Springer, Switzerland, Vol. 32, 2017
Sebastian, Leonard C., “The ASEAN Response to Terrorism”, UNISCI Discussion Papers, Institute Defence and Strategic Studies, Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Carribean, Spain and Portugal, 2003
Bogdanoski, Mitko, Drage Petreski, “Cyber Terrorism – Global Security Threat”, International Scientific Defence, Security and Peace Journal, 327.88:004.738.5-027.22, 2013
Monica Den Boer, “9/11 and The Europeanisation of Anti-Terrorism Policy: A Critical Assessment”, Policy Papers No.6, Groupement d’études et de recherches, 2003
Thomas, Nicholas, “Cyber Security in East Asia: Governing Anarchy”, Asian Security, Vol.5 No.1, 2009
V, Orlova A, Moore JW,“Umbrellas” or “Building Blocks?”: defining international terrorism and transnational organized crime in international law”, Houston Journal of International Law, Vol.27 2005
Rik Coolset, “EU Counterterrorism Strategy: value added or chimera?” Royal Institute of International Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 4, 2010
Makarenko, Tamara, “Europe Adapts to new Terrorist Threats,” JIR, 2003
Mbanaso, U.M. and E.S. Dandaura, ‘The Cyberspace: redefining a new world’, IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering, Vol.17 (3), 2015
Treaties
ASEAN Convention on Counter Terrorism, 13 January 2007
Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13, 2008
Other Legal Documents
ASEAN Cyber Security Summit, Singapore, 17th August 2018
ASEAN Declaration on Joint Action to Counter Terrorism, Brunei 5th of November 2001
ASEAN Declaration on Transnational Crime Manila, 20 December 1997
ASEAN Declaration to Prevent and Combat Cybercrime, 2017
ASEAN Leaders’ Statement on Cybersecurity Cooperation, 2018
ASEAN-United States of America Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat International Terrorism, Bandar Seri Begawan, 1st of August 2002
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, the European Agenda on Security, COM 185, Strasbourg, 2015
Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA of 24 February 2005 on attacks against information systems (JOL EU L, No. 69, of 16 March 2005.)
Council Framework Decision of June 13th on the European Arrest Warrant and the Surrender Procedure between Member States, 2002
Directive 2014/41/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 3 April 2014 regarding the European Investigation Order in criminal matters
Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council 2013/40/EU of 12 August 2013 on Attacks Against Information Systems and Replacing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA (JOL EU L 218 of 14 August 2013)
Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council 2013/40/EU of 12 August 2013 on attacks against information systems and replacing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA (JOL EU L 218 of 14 August 2013)
EU Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism (2002/475/JHA), 2002
Joint Declaration of ASEAN and China on Cooperation in the Field of Non-Traditional Security Issues, 6th ASEAN-China Summit, Phnom Penh, 4th of November 2002
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 51/210, Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, 17 December 1996
Internet
Dominika Giantas, Dimitrios Stergiou, “From Terrorism to Cyber-Terrorism: the case of ISIS”, SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3135927, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
Dorothy E Denning, “A View of Cyberterrorism Five Years Later”, Calhoun: the NPS Institutional, https://calhoun.nps.edu/bitstream/handle/10945/ 37160/Cyberterror_2006.pdf?sequence=1, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
E4J University Module Series: Counter-Terrorism, Module 5: Regional Counter-Terrorism Approaches, https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/terrorism/ module-5/key-issues/asian-region.html
EUROPOL Counter Terrorism Centre (ECTC), https://www.europol.europa.eu/ newsroom/news/europol%25E209s-european-counter-terrorism-centre-strengthens-eu%25E209s-response-to-terror
https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2015/07/13/pdrms-facebook-account-hacked/932533, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
https://edition.cnn.com/2013/11/04/world/europe/spain-train-bombings-fast-facts/index.html, accessed on 18th of December 2019, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
Malaysia Airlines website hacked by 'Cyber Caliphate', https://edition.cnn.com/2015/01/25/asia/malaysia-airlines-website-hacked/index.html, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
Marguerite Borelli, ASEAN Counter-terrorism weaknesses: Analysis, Eurasia Review https://www.eurasiareview.com/16102017-asean-counter-terrorism-weaknesses-analysis/, accessed on 22nd of December 2019
Rodolfo C. Severino, The ASEAN Way and the Rule of Law, at the International Law Conference on ASEAN Legal System and Regional Integration, Kuala Lumpur 3rd of September 2001, https://asean.org/?static_post=the-asean-way-and-the-rule-of-law Accessed on 1st of March 2021
United States Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (2010, Joint Publication 1-02, by Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp1_02.pdf, Accessed on 1st of March 2021
US Department of Justice, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin: Cyber Terrorism, http:// leb.fbi.gov/2011/november/leb-november-2011, accessed on 1st of March 2021
World Social Science Forum (WSSF), Montreal, Canada, 2003 https://www.cybersecurityintelligence.com/blog/the-difference-between-Cyberspace-and-the-internet-2412.html accessed on 1st of March 2020,
Miscellaneous
Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy: a strong Britain in an age of uncertainty, Cm 7953, 2010
CONTEST, The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism, Secretary of State for the Home Department by Command of Her Majesty, 2018
Ester Herlin-Karnell & Claudio Matera, External dimensions of the EU counter-terrorism policy, Centre for the Law of EU External Relations, CLEER working papers 2014/2
Frank Umbach, EU-ASEAN Political and Security Dialogue at the Beginning of the 21 Century: prospects for interregional cooperation on international terrorism, SSOAR Open Access Repository
Haekal Al Asyari, The Cyberspace as a Common Heritage of Mankind: governing jurisdictional limitations of the internet by virtue of international law, Master Degree Thesis, University of Debrecen, 2020
Keiran Hardy, George Williams, ‘What is Cyberterrorsim’? Computer and Internet Technology in Legal Definitions of Terrorism, 2014
Reports on the APEC Technomart III, as contained in: Rodney Chester, “Crooks tipped to ride cyber crime wave,” The Courier Mail, November 2, 1999
Russian-American Cybersecurity Summit, Helsinki, July 16 2018
Sociedade Portugesa de Inovacao (SPI), “Overview of Cybersecurity Status in ASEAN and the EU”, Ref. Ares(2018)5582066 - 31/10/2018
United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism, The Protection of Critical Infrastructure Against Terrorist Attacks: compendium of good practices, 2018