Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Deep under the waters, HMS Challenger discovered the polymetallic nodules during its scientific expeditions in the Kara Sea part of the Arctic Ocean in 1868. Whilst in the vastness of the skies above, the Clementine and Lunar Prospector indicated the existence of water ice at the lunar poles during the period of 1994 to 1999. In 2003, the SMART-1 lunar orbiter of the European Space Agency discovered the key chemical elements of the Moon. Going even further back, in 1988, NASA published a work on Helium-3 blown away by the solar wind onto the Moon, and the possibilities of harvesting it as an alternative energy source for the continuation and advancement of human race. The deep seabed and the outer space, along with their resources, are both internationally governed under the same underlying principle: the Common Heritage of Humankind. Yet, while the former has begun to take shape, the latter still has very little progress. Various factors ranging from laws to politics to economics and undeniably the advances in science and technology have hindered the development of the principle of Common Heritage of Humankind in the outer space regime. Hence, this paper is to argue on how best to reform the principle, and consequently, determining which of its elements that might be spared in order for it to eventually work in balancing the contrasting interests from diverse stake-holders: the developed and the developing countries; the sovereign and the corporations – with their respective weapons of laws or of technology.
Keywords: Common Heritage of Humankind; Outer Space Regime; Deep Seabed
Abstrak
Jauh di dasar samudera, HMS Challenger menemukan polymetallic nodules dalam ekspedisi ilmiahnya di Laut Kara bagian dari Samudra Arktik pada tahun 1868. Sementara di ruang angkasa yang tak terbatas, Clementine dan Lunar Prospector menunjukkan adanya air es di kutub-kutub di Bulan dalam periode 1994 hingga 1999. Pada tahun 2003, pengorbit bulan SMART-1 dari Badan Antariksa Eropa menemukan unsur-unsur kimia utama Bulan. Lebih jauh ke belakang, pada tahun 1988, NASA menerbitkan sebuah karya tentang Helium-3 yang diterbangkan oleh angin matahari ke Bulan, dan kemungkinan memanennya sebagai sumber energi alternatif untuk kelanjutan dan kemajuan umat manusia. Dasar samudera dalam dan ruang angkasa, beserta seluruh kandungan sumber dayanya, secara internasional diatur berdasarkan prinsip fundamental yang sama: Common Heritage of Humankind. Namun, sementara pengaplikasian prinsip ini di rezim Hukum Laut mulai terbentuk, rezim Hukum Ruang Angkasa hanya memiliki sedikit kemajuan. Berbagai faktor mulai dari hukum hingga politik, ekonomi dan tidak dapat dipungkiri kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi telah menghambat perkembangan prinsip Common Heritage of Humankind di rezim ruang angkasa. Oleh karena itu, tulisan ini adalah untuk mendebat cara terbaik untuk mereformasi prinsip tersebut, dan menentukan elemen mana yang mungkin dapat dikorbankan agar pada akhirnya prinsip ini dapat benar-benar berlaku dengan cara yang dapat menyeimbangkan kepentingan yang berlawanan dari berbagai pemangku kepentingan: negara maju dan negara berkembang; pemerintah dan korporat – dengan senjata hukum atau ataupun senjata teknologi masing-masing.
Kata-kata Kunci: Common Heritage of Humankind; Rezim Ruang Angkasa; Dasar Samudera Dalam
Keywords
Article Details
References
Barkenbus, Jack, Deep Seabed Resources: Politics and Technology (1979)
Cheng, Bin, ‘International Law and High Altitude Flights, Balloons, Rockets and Man-made Satellites’ [1959] International and Comparative Law Quarterly
Harry, Martin, ‘The Deep Seabed: The Common Heritage of Mankind or Arena for Unilateral Exploitation?’ (1992) 40 Naval Law Review 207
Newcombe, Andrew, Lluis Paradell, Law and Practise of Investment Treaties (Kluwer, 2009)
Noyes, John, ‘The Common Heritage of Mankind: Past. Present, and Future’ (2012) 40 DENV. J. INT’L L. & POL’Y 447
Schrerrer, Deborah, Our Solar System – Ancient Worlds, New Discoveries (Stanford University Press, 2013)
Scovazzi, Tullio, ‘The Concept of Common Heritage of Mankind and the Genetic Resources of Seabed Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction’ (2007) 25 Agenda Internacional 11
Alexander F Cohen, ‘Cosmos 954 and the International Law of Satellite Accidents’ (1984) 10 Yale Journal of International Law 77
Carol L Buxton, ‘Property in Outer Space: The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle vs. the First in Time, First in Right Rule of Property’ (2004) 69 Journal of Air Law and Commerce 688
Christian Dahlman, ‘The Function of Opinio Juris in Customary International Law’ (2012) 81 Nordic Journal of International Law 327
Hans Kelsen, ‘The Principle of Sovereign Equality of States as A Basis of International Organisation’ (1944) 53 Yale Law Journal 207
Henry Hertzfeld, ‘Current and Future Issues in International Space Law’ (2008) 15 ILSA Journal of International & Comparative Law 325
Jeswald W Salacuse, ‘The Emerging Global Regime for Investment’ (2010) 51 Harvard International Law Journal 427
NASA Scientific and Technical Information Branch, Lunar Helium-3 and Fusion Power (NASA Conference Publication, workshop held at NASA Lewis Research Centre, Ohio, 25-26 April 1988)
Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, signed 18 December 1979, 1363 UNTS 3 (entered into force 11 July 1984)
David, Leonard, Is Moon Mining Economically Feasible? (7 January 2015) Space.com < https://www.space.com/28189-moon-mining-economic-feasibility.html >
Draft Law on the Exploration and Use of Space Resources (Luxembourg) 13 July 2017
International Seabed Authority, Polymetallic Nodules (as of 12 January 2019) International Seabed Authority < https://www.isa.org.jm/polymetallic-nodules >
International Seabed Authority, Reserved Areas (as of 12 January 2019) International Seabed Authority < https://www.isa.org.jm/contractors/reserved-areas >
Joint Statement on the Benefits of Adherence to the Moon Agreement in 2008
Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity, signed 29 October 2010 (entered into force 12 October2014)
NASA, Oumuamua (19 October 2017) NASA Science Solar System Exploration < https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/comets/oumuamua/in-depth/ >
Richards, Paul Henry, Some Current Problems of International Space Law, (Doctor of Philosophy Theses, The Council for National Academic Awards, 1985)
Spudis, Paul D, The Robotic Exploration of the Moon (as of 12 January 2019) NASA < https://moon.nasa.gov/exploration/history/ >
The Hague Space Resources Governance Working Group, ‘Draft Building Blocks for the Development of an International Framework on Space Resources Activities’ (Preliminary work, Leiden Law School, 13 September 2017)
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, opened for signature 27 January 1967, 610 UNTS 205 (entered into force 10 October 1967)
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas, opened for signature 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 397 (entered into force 16 November 1994)
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1962 (XVIII) of 13 December 1963
US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act, 51 USC 10101
References
Barkenbus, Jack, Deep Seabed Resources: Politics and Technology (1979)
Cheng, Bin, ‘International Law and High Altitude Flights, Balloons, Rockets and Man-made Satellites’ [1959] International and Comparative Law Quarterly
Harry, Martin, ‘The Deep Seabed: The Common Heritage of Mankind or Arena for Unilateral Exploitation?’ (1992) 40 Naval Law Review 207
Newcombe, Andrew, Lluis Paradell, Law and Practise of Investment Treaties (Kluwer, 2009)
Noyes, John, ‘The Common Heritage of Mankind: Past. Present, and Future’ (2012) 40 DENV. J. INT’L L. & POL’Y 447
Schrerrer, Deborah, Our Solar System – Ancient Worlds, New Discoveries (Stanford University Press, 2013)
Scovazzi, Tullio, ‘The Concept of Common Heritage of Mankind and the Genetic Resources of Seabed Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction’ (2007) 25 Agenda Internacional 11
Alexander F Cohen, ‘Cosmos 954 and the International Law of Satellite Accidents’ (1984) 10 Yale Journal of International Law 77
Carol L Buxton, ‘Property in Outer Space: The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle vs. the First in Time, First in Right Rule of Property’ (2004) 69 Journal of Air Law and Commerce 688
Christian Dahlman, ‘The Function of Opinio Juris in Customary International Law’ (2012) 81 Nordic Journal of International Law 327
Hans Kelsen, ‘The Principle of Sovereign Equality of States as A Basis of International Organisation’ (1944) 53 Yale Law Journal 207
Henry Hertzfeld, ‘Current and Future Issues in International Space Law’ (2008) 15 ILSA Journal of International & Comparative Law 325
Jeswald W Salacuse, ‘The Emerging Global Regime for Investment’ (2010) 51 Harvard International Law Journal 427
NASA Scientific and Technical Information Branch, Lunar Helium-3 and Fusion Power (NASA Conference Publication, workshop held at NASA Lewis Research Centre, Ohio, 25-26 April 1988)
Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, signed 18 December 1979, 1363 UNTS 3 (entered into force 11 July 1984)
David, Leonard, Is Moon Mining Economically Feasible? (7 January 2015) Space.com < https://www.space.com/28189-moon-mining-economic-feasibility.html >
Draft Law on the Exploration and Use of Space Resources (Luxembourg) 13 July 2017
International Seabed Authority, Polymetallic Nodules (as of 12 January 2019) International Seabed Authority < https://www.isa.org.jm/polymetallic-nodules >
International Seabed Authority, Reserved Areas (as of 12 January 2019) International Seabed Authority < https://www.isa.org.jm/contractors/reserved-areas >
Joint Statement on the Benefits of Adherence to the Moon Agreement in 2008
Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity, signed 29 October 2010 (entered into force 12 October2014)
NASA, Oumuamua (19 October 2017) NASA Science Solar System Exploration < https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/comets/oumuamua/in-depth/ >
Richards, Paul Henry, Some Current Problems of International Space Law, (Doctor of Philosophy Theses, The Council for National Academic Awards, 1985)
Spudis, Paul D, The Robotic Exploration of the Moon (as of 12 January 2019) NASA < https://moon.nasa.gov/exploration/history/ >
The Hague Space Resources Governance Working Group, ‘Draft Building Blocks for the Development of an International Framework on Space Resources Activities’ (Preliminary work, Leiden Law School, 13 September 2017)
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, opened for signature 27 January 1967, 610 UNTS 205 (entered into force 10 October 1967)
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas, opened for signature 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 397 (entered into force 16 November 1994)
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1962 (XVIII) of 13 December 1963
US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act, 51 USC 10101