Main Article Content
Abstract
Third-Person Effect theory (TPE) postulates that audiences deny the media's direct impact on themselves but perceive the same media as having a larger impact on others. This study examines TPE and its relationship with Islamic religiosity in shaping perceptions of moral and non-moral issues on social networking sites (SNS) among students at the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). Another objective of this study is to determine how students perceive the effect of moral and non-moral issues in SNS on themselves compared to others. This study employed a quantitative design, with 357 students from the IIUM serving as respondents. The findings indicate that participants perceive moral issues as affecting others more than themselves, which is consistent with TPE. However, non-moral issues are perceived as influencing both the self and others. The results also indicate that Islamic religiosity positively affects the perceived impact of moral issues on others and non-moral issues on oneself in SNS. The data were analyzed using SPSS, with paired t-tests comparing self versus others' perceptions of moral and non-moral issues on SNS. The findings confirm that students perceive moral issues as having a greater impact on others than on themselves, aligning with TPE. Conversely, non-moral issues are perceived as influencing both the self and others, demonstrating SPE. The study also reveals that Islamic religiosity positively influences the perceived effect of moral issues on others and non-moral issues on oneself in SNS.
Keywords
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Copyright (c) 2024 Ala BaWazir, Somia Abdul Same'e, Hasan M. Mansoor
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References
Abu Bakar, E., Draman, N. J., & Saidin, A. Z. (2018). Value, religiosity and behaviour in social media. 2018 International Conference on Information and Communication Technology for the Muslim World (ICT4M), 42–46. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICT4M.2018.00017
Alam, L., Lahmi, A., Alam, M., & Aminah, A. (2022). The rise of the urban piety movement: Jamaah Maiyah as an urban spiritualism and emerging religiosity in the public sphere. Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun, 10(3), 745–762. https://doi.org/10.26811/peuradeun.v10i3.711
Alicke, M. D. (1985). Global self-evaluation as determined by the desirability and controllability of trait adjectives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(6), 1621–1630. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.49.6.1621
Aliza, P., & Akbar, N. (2024). The influence of brand image, halal label, and religiosity on the purchasing attitude of local halal cosmetics in Bogor. Journal of Islamic Economics Lariba, 10(1), 169–182. https://doi.org/10.20885/jielariba.vol10.iss1.art10
Andsager, J. L., & White, H. A. (2007). Self versus others: Media, messages, and the third-person effect (1. publ). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Anspach, M. R. (1992). Violence against violence: Islam in comparative context. In M. Juergensmeyer (Ed.), Violence and the sacred in the modern world. Routledge.
Baazeem, R., Benson, V., & Hand, C. (2018). Impact of Religiosity on preserved privacy on social media: Proposed Model of Self-disclosure. PACIS 2018 Proceedings, 1–15. https://aisel.aisnet.org/pacis2018/55
Begum, A. (2021). The concept of advertisement: An Islamic perceptive. Unisia, 39(1), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.20885/unisia.vol39.iss1.art2
Burton, J. (1993). Law and exegesis: The penalty for adultery in Islam. In G. R. Hawting (Ed.), Approaches to the Qur’an. Routledge.
Cheng, Y., & Chen, Z. F. (2020). The influence of presumed fake news influence: Examining public support for corporate corrective response, media literacy interventions, and governmental regulation. Mass Communication and Society, 23(5), 705–729. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2020.1750656
Chia, S. C., Sun, Y., Lu, F., & Gudmundsdottir, A. (2023). Doxing, regulation, and privacy protection: Expanding the behavioral consequences of the third-person effect. Asian Journal of Communication, 33(3), 289–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2023.2194883
Cho, H., & Boster, F. J. (2008). First and third person perceptions on anti-drug ads among adolescents. Communication Research, 35(2), 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650207313158
Choi, Y. (2010). Religion, religiosity, and South Korean consumer switching behaviors. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 9(3), 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.292
Chung, M. (2019). The message influences me more than others: How and why social media metrics affect first person perception and behavioral intentions. Computers in Human Behavior, 91, 271–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.10.011
Cohen, A. B., & Hill, P. C. (2007). Religion as culture: Religious individualism and collectivism among American Catholics, Jews, and Protestants. Journal of Personality, 75(4), 709–742. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00454.x
Davison, W. P. (1983). The Third-Person Effect in communication. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1086/268763
Donnerstein, E. (2013). Pornography, violent content in: Effects of. In M. S. Eastin, Encyclopedia of media violence. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452299655.n112
Duck, J. M., Terry, D. J., & Hogg, M. A. (1995). The perceived influence of AIDS advertising: Third-person effects in the context of positive media content. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17(3), 305–325. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1703_2
Fam, K. S., Waller, D. S., & Erdogan, B. Z. (2004). The influence of religion on attitudes towards the advertising of controversial products. European Journal of Marketing, 38(5/6), 537–555. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090560410529204
Gecas, V. (1982). The self-concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 8(1), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.08.080182.000245
Golan, G. (2002). Religiosity and the third-person effect. Journal of Media and Religion, 1(2), 105–120. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328415JMR0102_2
Gunther, A. C., & Mundy, P. (1993). Biased optimism and the third-person effect. Journalism Quarterly, 70(1), 58–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769909307000107
Gunther, A. C., & Thorson, E. (1992). Perceived persuasive effects of product commercials and public service announcements: Third-person effects in new domains. Communication Research, 19(5), 574–596. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365092019005002
Hoorens, V., & Ruiter, S. (1996). The optimal impact phenomenon: Beyond the third person effect. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26(4), 599–610. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199607)26:4<599::AID-EJSP773>3.0.CO;2-7
Hoover, S., & Lundby, K. (1997). Rethinking media, religion, and culture. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452243559
Idid, S. A., & Souket, R. (2019). Barisan Nasional’s GE14 campaign materials: A reversed third-person effect. SEARCH Journal of Media and Communication Research, 11(2), 1–19. https://fslmjournals.taylors.edu.my/barisan-nasionals-ge14-campaign-materials-a-reversed-third-person-effect/
Islamway. net. (2016, April 23). New Muslim guide—(27) Fobidden in the Holy Quran and Sunnah [HTML]. Islamway. Net. https://ar.islamway.net/article/58755/-27-المحرمات-في-القرآن-الكريم-والسنة-النبوية
Johansson, B. (2002, July 21). Images of media power: The third-person effect and the shaping of political attitudes. 23 Conference and General Assembly IAMCR/AIECS/AIERI International Association for Media and Communication Research, Barcelona. https://gup.ub.gu.se/publication/49676
Johansson, B. (2005). The third-person effect: Only a media perception? Nordicom Review, 26(1), 81–94. https://doi.org/10.1515/nor-2017-0248
Juliansyahzen, M. I. (2023). Ideologization of hijrah in social media: Digital activism, religious commodification, and conservative domination. Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, 22(1), 155–180. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol22.iss1.art6
Krauss, S. E., Hj. Hamzah, A., Juhari, R., & Abd. Hamid, J. (2005). The Muslim Religiosity-Personality Inventory (MRPI): Towards understanding differences in the Islamic religiosity among the Malaysian youth. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 13(2), 173–186. http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/resources/files/Pertanika%20PAPERS/JSSH%20Vol.%2013%20(2)%20Sep.%202005/05%20JSSH%20Vol.13%20(2)%202005%20(Pg%20173-178).pdf
Liu, P. L., & Huang, L. V. (2020). Digital disinformation about Covid-19 and the third-person effect: Examining the channel differences and negative emotional outcomes. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 23(11), 789–793. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0363
Lo, V.-H., & Wei, R. (2002). Third-Person Effect, gender, and pornography on the lnternet. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 46(1), 13–33. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4601_2
Lo, V.-H., Wei, R., & Wu, H. (2010). Examining the first, second and third-person effects of Internet pornography on Taiwanese adolescents: Implications for the restriction of pornography. Asian Journal of Communication, 20(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292980903440855
McDaniel, S. W., & Burnett, J. J. (1990). Consumer religiosity and retail store evaluative criteria. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 18(2), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02726426
Miller, B. J., Mundey, P., & Hill, J. P. (2013). Faith in the age of Facebook: Exploring the links between religion and social network site membership and use. Sociology of Religion, 74(2), 227–253. https://doi.org/10.1093/socrel/srs073
Mintz, S. (2013, May 1). Social media’s effects on the next generation [HTML]. Workplace Ethics Advice. https://www.workplaceethicsadvice.com/2013/05/social-medias-effects-on-the-next-generation-.html
Mohd Noor, A. (2010). Stoning for adultery in Christianity and Islam and its implementation in contemporary Muslim societies. Intellectual Discourse, 18(1), 97–113. https://doi.org/10.31436/id.v18i1.139
Nicklin, L. L., Swain, E., & Lloyd, J. (2020). Reactions to unsolicited violent, and sexual, explicit media content shared over social media: Gender differences and links with prior exposure. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4296. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124296
Nuriman, N., & Ibrahim, S. R. (2020). Measuring validity and reliability of the model of Islamic religious-personality and social environment as a mediator. Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun, 8(2), 351–376. https://doi.org/10.26811/peuradeun.v8i2.375
Nurozi, A., & Muttaqien, D. (2021). The effectiveness of crime prevention with corporal punishment in Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam. Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, 20(2), 223–244. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol20.iss2.art2
Perloff, R. M. (1996). Perceptions and conceptions of political media impact: The third-person effect and beyond. In The psychology of political communication (pp. 177–197). University of Michigan Press.
Radianti, A., Rahmani, N. A. B., & Syarbaini, A. M. B. (2023). The influence of religiosity, service, and premium rates on customer satisfaction through the sharia insurance decision as an intervening variable at Askrida Syariah Insurance Company Medan Branch. Journal of Islamic Economics Lariba, 9(1), 221–238. https://doi.org/10.20885/jielariba.vol9.iss1.art13
Smith, C., & Snell, P. (2009). Souls in transition: The religious lives of emerging adults in America. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195371796.001.0001
Stavrositu, C. D., & Kim, J. (2014). Social media metrics: Third-person perceptions of health information. Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.025
Talwar, S., Dhir, A., Singh, D., Virk, G. S., & Salo, J. (2020). Sharing of fake news on social media: Application of the honeycomb framework and the third-person effect hypothesis. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 57, 102197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102197
Triandis, H. C. (2013). Toward understanding violence in Islam. Acta de Investigación Psicológica, 3(1), 969–985. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2007-4719(13)70946-3
Tsay-Vogel, M. (2016). Me versus them: Third-person effects among Facebook users. New Media & Society, 18(9), 1956–1972. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815573476
Tsay‐Vogel, M. (2020). Third‐person effect. In J. Bulck (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of media psychology (pp. 1–8). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119011071.iemp0130
Wan Ahmad, W. M. (2008). Religiosity and banking selection criteria among Malays in Lembah Klang. Jurnal Syariah, 16(2), 99–130. https://ejournal.um.edu.my/index.php/JS/article/view/22766
Weinstein, A. M. (2023). Problematic Social Networking Site use-effects on mental health and the brain. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1106004
Wilkes, R. E., Burnett, J. J., & Howell, R. D. (1986). On the meaning and measurement of religiosity in consumer research. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 14(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02722112
Wright, P. J. (2013). Pornography, violent content in. In M. S. Eastin, Encyclopedia of media violence. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452299655.n111
Yang, J., & Tian, Y. (2021). “Others are more vulnerable to fake news than I am”: Third-person effect of Covid-19 fake news on social media users. Computers in Human Behavior, 125, 106950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106950
References
Abu Bakar, E., Draman, N. J., & Saidin, A. Z. (2018). Value, religiosity and behaviour in social media. 2018 International Conference on Information and Communication Technology for the Muslim World (ICT4M), 42–46. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICT4M.2018.00017
Alam, L., Lahmi, A., Alam, M., & Aminah, A. (2022). The rise of the urban piety movement: Jamaah Maiyah as an urban spiritualism and emerging religiosity in the public sphere. Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun, 10(3), 745–762. https://doi.org/10.26811/peuradeun.v10i3.711
Alicke, M. D. (1985). Global self-evaluation as determined by the desirability and controllability of trait adjectives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(6), 1621–1630. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.49.6.1621
Aliza, P., & Akbar, N. (2024). The influence of brand image, halal label, and religiosity on the purchasing attitude of local halal cosmetics in Bogor. Journal of Islamic Economics Lariba, 10(1), 169–182. https://doi.org/10.20885/jielariba.vol10.iss1.art10
Andsager, J. L., & White, H. A. (2007). Self versus others: Media, messages, and the third-person effect (1. publ). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Anspach, M. R. (1992). Violence against violence: Islam in comparative context. In M. Juergensmeyer (Ed.), Violence and the sacred in the modern world. Routledge.
Baazeem, R., Benson, V., & Hand, C. (2018). Impact of Religiosity on preserved privacy on social media: Proposed Model of Self-disclosure. PACIS 2018 Proceedings, 1–15. https://aisel.aisnet.org/pacis2018/55
Begum, A. (2021). The concept of advertisement: An Islamic perceptive. Unisia, 39(1), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.20885/unisia.vol39.iss1.art2
Burton, J. (1993). Law and exegesis: The penalty for adultery in Islam. In G. R. Hawting (Ed.), Approaches to the Qur’an. Routledge.
Cheng, Y., & Chen, Z. F. (2020). The influence of presumed fake news influence: Examining public support for corporate corrective response, media literacy interventions, and governmental regulation. Mass Communication and Society, 23(5), 705–729. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2020.1750656
Chia, S. C., Sun, Y., Lu, F., & Gudmundsdottir, A. (2023). Doxing, regulation, and privacy protection: Expanding the behavioral consequences of the third-person effect. Asian Journal of Communication, 33(3), 289–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2023.2194883
Cho, H., & Boster, F. J. (2008). First and third person perceptions on anti-drug ads among adolescents. Communication Research, 35(2), 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650207313158
Choi, Y. (2010). Religion, religiosity, and South Korean consumer switching behaviors. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 9(3), 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.292
Chung, M. (2019). The message influences me more than others: How and why social media metrics affect first person perception and behavioral intentions. Computers in Human Behavior, 91, 271–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.10.011
Cohen, A. B., & Hill, P. C. (2007). Religion as culture: Religious individualism and collectivism among American Catholics, Jews, and Protestants. Journal of Personality, 75(4), 709–742. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00454.x
Davison, W. P. (1983). The Third-Person Effect in communication. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1086/268763
Donnerstein, E. (2013). Pornography, violent content in: Effects of. In M. S. Eastin, Encyclopedia of media violence. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452299655.n112
Duck, J. M., Terry, D. J., & Hogg, M. A. (1995). The perceived influence of AIDS advertising: Third-person effects in the context of positive media content. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17(3), 305–325. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1703_2
Fam, K. S., Waller, D. S., & Erdogan, B. Z. (2004). The influence of religion on attitudes towards the advertising of controversial products. European Journal of Marketing, 38(5/6), 537–555. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090560410529204
Gecas, V. (1982). The self-concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 8(1), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.08.080182.000245
Golan, G. (2002). Religiosity and the third-person effect. Journal of Media and Religion, 1(2), 105–120. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328415JMR0102_2
Gunther, A. C., & Mundy, P. (1993). Biased optimism and the third-person effect. Journalism Quarterly, 70(1), 58–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769909307000107
Gunther, A. C., & Thorson, E. (1992). Perceived persuasive effects of product commercials and public service announcements: Third-person effects in new domains. Communication Research, 19(5), 574–596. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365092019005002
Hoorens, V., & Ruiter, S. (1996). The optimal impact phenomenon: Beyond the third person effect. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26(4), 599–610. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199607)26:4<599::AID-EJSP773>3.0.CO;2-7
Hoover, S., & Lundby, K. (1997). Rethinking media, religion, and culture. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452243559
Idid, S. A., & Souket, R. (2019). Barisan Nasional’s GE14 campaign materials: A reversed third-person effect. SEARCH Journal of Media and Communication Research, 11(2), 1–19. https://fslmjournals.taylors.edu.my/barisan-nasionals-ge14-campaign-materials-a-reversed-third-person-effect/
Islamway. net. (2016, April 23). New Muslim guide—(27) Fobidden in the Holy Quran and Sunnah [HTML]. Islamway. Net. https://ar.islamway.net/article/58755/-27-المحرمات-في-القرآن-الكريم-والسنة-النبوية
Johansson, B. (2002, July 21). Images of media power: The third-person effect and the shaping of political attitudes. 23 Conference and General Assembly IAMCR/AIECS/AIERI International Association for Media and Communication Research, Barcelona. https://gup.ub.gu.se/publication/49676
Johansson, B. (2005). The third-person effect: Only a media perception? Nordicom Review, 26(1), 81–94. https://doi.org/10.1515/nor-2017-0248
Juliansyahzen, M. I. (2023). Ideologization of hijrah in social media: Digital activism, religious commodification, and conservative domination. Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, 22(1), 155–180. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol22.iss1.art6
Krauss, S. E., Hj. Hamzah, A., Juhari, R., & Abd. Hamid, J. (2005). The Muslim Religiosity-Personality Inventory (MRPI): Towards understanding differences in the Islamic religiosity among the Malaysian youth. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 13(2), 173–186. http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/resources/files/Pertanika%20PAPERS/JSSH%20Vol.%2013%20(2)%20Sep.%202005/05%20JSSH%20Vol.13%20(2)%202005%20(Pg%20173-178).pdf
Liu, P. L., & Huang, L. V. (2020). Digital disinformation about Covid-19 and the third-person effect: Examining the channel differences and negative emotional outcomes. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 23(11), 789–793. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0363
Lo, V.-H., & Wei, R. (2002). Third-Person Effect, gender, and pornography on the lnternet. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 46(1), 13–33. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4601_2
Lo, V.-H., Wei, R., & Wu, H. (2010). Examining the first, second and third-person effects of Internet pornography on Taiwanese adolescents: Implications for the restriction of pornography. Asian Journal of Communication, 20(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292980903440855
McDaniel, S. W., & Burnett, J. J. (1990). Consumer religiosity and retail store evaluative criteria. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 18(2), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02726426
Miller, B. J., Mundey, P., & Hill, J. P. (2013). Faith in the age of Facebook: Exploring the links between religion and social network site membership and use. Sociology of Religion, 74(2), 227–253. https://doi.org/10.1093/socrel/srs073
Mintz, S. (2013, May 1). Social media’s effects on the next generation [HTML]. Workplace Ethics Advice. https://www.workplaceethicsadvice.com/2013/05/social-medias-effects-on-the-next-generation-.html
Mohd Noor, A. (2010). Stoning for adultery in Christianity and Islam and its implementation in contemporary Muslim societies. Intellectual Discourse, 18(1), 97–113. https://doi.org/10.31436/id.v18i1.139
Nicklin, L. L., Swain, E., & Lloyd, J. (2020). Reactions to unsolicited violent, and sexual, explicit media content shared over social media: Gender differences and links with prior exposure. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4296. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124296
Nuriman, N., & Ibrahim, S. R. (2020). Measuring validity and reliability of the model of Islamic religious-personality and social environment as a mediator. Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun, 8(2), 351–376. https://doi.org/10.26811/peuradeun.v8i2.375
Nurozi, A., & Muttaqien, D. (2021). The effectiveness of crime prevention with corporal punishment in Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam. Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, 20(2), 223–244. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol20.iss2.art2
Perloff, R. M. (1996). Perceptions and conceptions of political media impact: The third-person effect and beyond. In The psychology of political communication (pp. 177–197). University of Michigan Press.
Radianti, A., Rahmani, N. A. B., & Syarbaini, A. M. B. (2023). The influence of religiosity, service, and premium rates on customer satisfaction through the sharia insurance decision as an intervening variable at Askrida Syariah Insurance Company Medan Branch. Journal of Islamic Economics Lariba, 9(1), 221–238. https://doi.org/10.20885/jielariba.vol9.iss1.art13
Smith, C., & Snell, P. (2009). Souls in transition: The religious lives of emerging adults in America. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195371796.001.0001
Stavrositu, C. D., & Kim, J. (2014). Social media metrics: Third-person perceptions of health information. Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.025
Talwar, S., Dhir, A., Singh, D., Virk, G. S., & Salo, J. (2020). Sharing of fake news on social media: Application of the honeycomb framework and the third-person effect hypothesis. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 57, 102197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102197
Triandis, H. C. (2013). Toward understanding violence in Islam. Acta de Investigación Psicológica, 3(1), 969–985. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2007-4719(13)70946-3
Tsay-Vogel, M. (2016). Me versus them: Third-person effects among Facebook users. New Media & Society, 18(9), 1956–1972. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815573476
Tsay‐Vogel, M. (2020). Third‐person effect. In J. Bulck (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of media psychology (pp. 1–8). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119011071.iemp0130
Wan Ahmad, W. M. (2008). Religiosity and banking selection criteria among Malays in Lembah Klang. Jurnal Syariah, 16(2), 99–130. https://ejournal.um.edu.my/index.php/JS/article/view/22766
Weinstein, A. M. (2023). Problematic Social Networking Site use-effects on mental health and the brain. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1106004
Wilkes, R. E., Burnett, J. J., & Howell, R. D. (1986). On the meaning and measurement of religiosity in consumer research. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 14(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02722112
Wright, P. J. (2013). Pornography, violent content in. In M. S. Eastin, Encyclopedia of media violence. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452299655.n111
Yang, J., & Tian, Y. (2021). “Others are more vulnerable to fake news than I am”: Third-person effect of Covid-19 fake news on social media users. Computers in Human Behavior, 125, 106950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106950