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Abstract
Since the US withdrew all its military forces, the Taliban as one of the ultra-conservative factions managed to hold control of all Afghanistan. The dominance of the Taliban's power has peaked since the coup d'etat (coup) of the legitimate government in power under President Ashraf Ghani. The international community condemns the coup act and fears the Taliban leadership will pursue policies that are incompatible with human rights values. For this reason, this study examines the legality of the coup act carried out by the Taliban according to international law. In addition, this study will also analyze how the government under the control of the Taliban can gain recognition from other countries so that it can be used as a modality for establishing international relations. By using normative legal research, this study concludes that to determine the legality of the coup carried out by the Taliban, it is very dependent on the constitutionality of the coup according to Afghan law, their effective control, and their compliance with international law. Although the recognition is still ambiguous in practice, the Afghan government under the Taliban needs it to be actively involved in international relations.
Keywords: Taliban; Afghanistan; coup; recognition; international law
Abstrak
Sejak seluruh pasukan militer Amerika Serikat ditarik mundur, Taliban sebagai salah satu faksi ultra konservatif berhasil menguasasi seluruh wilayah Afganistan. Dominansi kekuasaan Taliban tersebut memuncak sejak terjadinya coup d’etat (kudeta) atas pemerintah yang sah berkuasa dibawah Presiden Ashraf Ghani. Masyarakat internasional mengecam tindakan kudeta tersebut dan khawatir kepemimpinan Taliban akan melakukan kebijakan yang tidak sesuai dengan nilai hak asasi manusia. Untuk itulah dalam penelitian ini dikaji legalitas tindakan kudeta yang dilakukan oleh Taliban menurut hukum internasional. Selain itu, penelitian ini juga akan menganalisis bagaimana agar pemerintah dibawah kendali Taliban dapat memperoleh pengakuan dari negara lain sehingga dapat digunakan sebagai modalitas menjalin hubungan internasional. Dengan menggunakan penelitian hukum normatif, penelitian ini menyimpulkan bahwa untuk menentukan legalitas kudeta yang dilakukan Taliban maka sangat tergantung pada keabsahan kudeta secara konstitusionalitas menurut hukum Afganistan, penguasaan efektif, dan kepatuhan mereka terhadap hukum internasional. Meskipun pengakuan masih terdapat ambiguitas dalam praktek, namun pemerintah Afganistan dibawah Taliban memerlukannya untuk dapat terlibat aktif dalam hubungan internasional.
Kata-kata Kunci: Taliban; Afganistan; kudeta; pengakuan; hukum internasional
Keywords
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References
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References
Asshiddiqie, Jimly, Konstitusi Dan Konstitusionalisme Indonesia, Konstitusi Press, Jakarta, 2005.
_______, Menuju Negara Hukum Yang Demokratis, Sekretariat Jenderal dan Kepaniteraan Mahkamah Konstiusi, Jakarta, 2008.
Carter, Gwendolen M., and John Herz, “Peranan Pemerintah Dalam Masyarakat Masa Kini.” In Masalah Kenegaraan, edited by Miriam Budiardjo, Gramedia, Jakarta, 1982.
Diantha, I Made Pasek, Metodologi Penelitian Hukum Normatif Dalam Justifikasi Teori Hukum, Prenada Media Group, Jakarta, 2017.
Farber, Daniel A., “Nor Long Remember.” Constitutional Commentary 18 (2001), 423–444.
Gaffar, Afan, Politik Indonesia; Transisi Menuju Demokrasi, Pustaka Pelajar, Yogyakarta, 2005.
Garner, Bryan A., ed., Black’s Law Dictionary, Thomson Business, 2004.
Jang, Ji-Hyang, and Peter Lee, Middle East Q&A: Egypt’s 2013 Coup and the Demise of Democracy, 2013.
Jennings, Robert, and Arthur Watts, Oppenheim’s International Law, Longman, London, 1992.
Locke, John, Second Treatise, Edited by P Laslett, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1967.
Luttwak, Edward, Kudeta : Teori Dan Praktik Penggulingan Kekuasaan, Narasi, Yogyakarta, 2015.
Marzuki, Peter Mahmud, Penelitian Hukum, Kencana, Jakarta, 2005.
Shaw, Malcolm N., International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2003.
Alexander Salt, “Transformation and the War in Afghanistan.” Strategic Studies Quarterly 12, no. 1 (2018): 98–126.
American Society of International Law, “United States Signs Agreement with the Taliban, but Prospects for Its Full Implementation Remain Uncertain.” American Journal of International Law 114, no. 3 (2020): 529–538.
David Schultz, “Democracy on Trial: Terrorism, Crime, and National Security Policy in a Post 9-11 World.” Golden Gate University Law Review 38 (2008): 195–248.
Dodik Setiawan Nur Heriyanto, “Solusi Intervensi Kemanusiaan Sebagai Penyelesaian Konflik Yang Terjadi Pasca Kudeta Presiden Mursi Di Mesir.” Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial UNISIA 35, no. 78 (2013): 71–79.
Duncan McCargo, “Competing Notions of Judicialization in Thailand.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 36, no. 3 (2014): 417–441.
George Derpanopoulos, Erica Frantz, Barbara Geddes, and Joseph Wright. “Are Coups Good for Democracy?” Research and Politics (2016): 1–7.
George S Harris, “The Causes of the 1960 Revolution in Turkey.” Middle East Journal 24, no. 4 (1970): 438–454.
Ihsan D Dagi, “Democratic Transition in Turkey, 1980-83: The Impact of European Diplomacy.” Middle Eastern Studies 32, no. 2 (1996): 124–141.
James Brown Scott, “The Central American Peace Conference of 1907.” American Journal of International Law 2, no. 1 (1908): 121–143.
James Crawford, “Democracy and International Law.” Britain Yearbook of International Law 64 (1993): 113–119.
James Gomez, “Introduction: Democracy and Human Rights in Southeast Asia.” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 33, no. 3 (2014): 3–17.
Jean D’Aspremont, “Responsibility for Coups d’etat in International Law.” Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 18 (2010): 451–473.
John Bartelson, “Making Exceptions: Some Remarks on the Concept of Coup d’état and Its History.” Political Theory 25, no. 3 (1997): 323–346.
Kenneth M.Holland, “Pakistan’s National Interest and Recognition of Afghanistan’s Taliban Regime.” Journal of Security and Strategic Analysis 7, no. 2 (2021): 1–22.
Kitti Prasirtsuk, “From Political Reform and Economic Crisis to Coup d’état in Thailand: The Twists and Turns of the Political Economy, 1997-2006.” Asian Survey 47, no. 6 (2007): 872–893.
Kristen E. Eichensehr, “Military Coup in Burma Draws International Condemnation and Pressure.” American Journal of International Law 115 (2021): 558–565.
Lyse Doucet, “Afghanistan: Don’t Recognise Taliban Regime, Resistance Urges - BBC News.”
Maxwell A Cameron, “Self-Coups: Peru, Guatemala, and Russia.” Journal of Democracy 9, no. 1 (1998): 125–139.
Maziar Jamnejad, and Michael Wood. “The Principle of Non-Intervention.” Leiden Journal of International Law 22, no. 2 (2009): 345–381.
Mike Doyle, “My 20 Years in Thailand.” Arkansas Lawyer (2017): 30–31.
Miyazaki Takashi, “Recognition of States and Governments in International Law: Theory and Practice.” In Chinese (Taiwan) Yearbook of International Law and Affairs, 28:64–77, 2010.
Nadia Banteka, “A Theory of Constructive Interpretation for Customary International Law Identification.” Michigan Journal of International Law (2018): 303–341.
Nikolay Marinov and Hein Goemans. “Coups and Democracy.” British Journal of Political Science 44, no. 4 (2014): 799–825.
Ömer Aslan, “External Support and Military Coups D’état During the Cold War.” In The United States and Military Coups in Turkey and Pakistan, 39–106. Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
Ozan O Varol, “The Democratic Coup d’Etat.” Havard International Law Journal 53 (2012): 291–356.
Peter Cole, “Human Rights Law - Torture Statute of Limitations Equitably Tolled for Plaintiffs Unable to Collect Evidence During Civil War - Arce v. Garcia, 434 F.3d 1254 (11th Cir. 2006).” Suffolk Transnational Law Review 30 (2006): 233–242.
Rahimullah Yusufzai, “16 Years of US Presence in Afghanistan: Objectives, Strategies and Emerging Scenario.” Policy Perspectives: The Journal of the Institute of Policy Studies 15, no. 1 (2018): 139–153.
Ralph H. Magnus, “Afghanistan in 1996: Year of the Taliban.” Asian Survey 37, no. 2 (1997): 111–117.
Roger P. Nye, “Civil-Military Confrontation in Turkey: The 1973 Presidential Election.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 8, no. 2 (1977): 209–228.
S.P., Harish and Joseph Chinyong Liow. “The Coup and the Conflict in Southern Thailand.” Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 19, no. 1 (2007): 161–184.
Susan Marks, The Riddle of All Constitutions: International Law, Democracy, and the Critique of Ideology. The Riddle of All Constitutions: International Law, Democracy, and the Critique of Ideology. Oxford University Press, 2010.
Svante E Cornell, “Turkey: Return to Stability?” Middle Eastern Studies 35, no. 4 (1999): 209–234.
Todd Landman, “Democracy and Human Rights: Concepts, Measures, and Relationships.” Politics and Governance 6, no. 1 (2018): 48–59.
Additional Treaty to the Treaty of Peace, 1907.
Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, 2001.
Constitution of Afganistan, 2004.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.
Treaty of Union, League, and Prepertual Confederation, 1826.
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicar. v. U.S.), Judgment, I.C.J. 14 212 (1986).
Protocol of Amendment to the Charter of the Organization of American States, 1992.
Burke, Jason. “The Rise and Fall of Osama Bin Laden Review – How the Son of a Brickie Became the Leader of Al-Qaida.” The Observer. Last modified 2021. Accessed September 17, 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/ books/2021/sep/06/the-rise-and-fall-of-osama-bin-laden-review-how-the-son-of-a-brickie-became-the-leader-of-al-qaida.
Croissant, Aurel, David Kuehn, Philip Lorenz, and Paul W. Chambers. “Bangladesh: From Militarized Politics to Politicized Military.” In Democratization and Civilian Control in Asia, 118–135. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Accessed June 28, 2022. https://link.springer.com/ chapter/10.1057/9781137319272_7.
O’Donnell, Lynne. “Afghanistan Again Becomes Terrorism Hub in Middle East.” Last modified 2022. Accessed June 27, 2022. https://foreignpolicy.com/ 2022/04/20/afghanistan-taliban-terrorism-jihad-control/.
Rahim, Shoaib Ahmad. “Afghanistan’s Dependence on Pakistan: Trade, Transit and the Cost of Being Landlocked.” Kardan Journal of Economics and Management Sciences (2018): 1–21. Accessed July 2, 2022. https://kardan.edu.af/data/public/files/KJEMS-4th-3.pdf.
Seldin, Jeff. “How Afghanistan’s Militant Groups Are Evolving Under Taliban Rule.” Last modified 2022. Accessed June 27, 2022. https://www.voanews.com/a/how-afghanistan-s-militant-groups-are-evolving-under-taliban-rule/6492194.html.
Shear, Michael D., David E. Sanger, Helene Cooper, Eric Schmitt, Julian E. Barnes, and Lara Jakes. “This Is How the U.S.’s Afghanistan Exit Plan Unraveled.” The New York Times. Last modified 2021. Accessed September 17, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/21/us/politics/biden-taliban-afghanistan-kabul.html.
Tiezzi, Shannon. “The Taliban: China’s Deal With the Devil in Afghanistan – The Diplomat.” Last modified 2021. Accessed July 2, 2022. https://thediplomat.com/2021/08/the-taliban-chinas-deal-with-the-devil-in-afghanistan/.
Toosi, Nahal. “Biden Unlikely to Formally Recognize Taliban Government - POLITICO.” Last modified 2021. Accessed September 18, 2021. https://www.politico.com/news/2021/09/11/biden-taliban-government-afghanistan-511239.
“Afghan President Says He Left Country to Avoid Bloodshed.” Last modified 2021. Accessed June 30, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghan-president-ghani-says-he-left-country-order-avoid-bloodshed-2021-08-15/.
“Afghanistan Trade Statistics.” Accessed July 2, 2022. https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/AFG.
“Australia Cuts Ties with Thailand over Military Coup.” Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-thailand-politics-australia-idUSKBN0EB06Q20140531.
“Australia to Downgrade Diplomatic Representation in Myanmar: Report – The Diplomat.” Accessed June 24, 2022. https://thediplomat.com/2022/05/ australia-to-downgrade-diplomatic-representation-in-myanmar-report/.
“Canada Suspends Operations at Embassy in Kabul as Taliban Breach Afghan Capital.” Last modified 2021. Accessed July 1, 2022. https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-embassy-afghanistan-taliban-1.6141674.
Declaration of Organization of African Union No. AHG/Dec.141 (XXXV), 1999. Accessed September 20, 2021. https://au.int/sites/default/files/ decisions/9544-1999_ahg_dec_132-142_xxxv_e.pdf.
“Embassy of Canada to Afghanistan, in Kabul.” Last modified 2022. Accessed July 2, 2022. https://www.international.gc.ca/country-pays/afghanistan/ kabul-kaboul.aspx?lang=eng.
General Assembly Resolution A/RES/55/96 on Promoting and Consolidating Democracy, 2001. Accessed September 20, 2021. https://digitallibrary.un.org/ record/428998.
“Govt to Consult World Powers on Taliban.” Last modified 2021. Accessed July 2, 2022. https://tribune.com.pk/story/2316163/govt-to-consult-world-powers-on-taliban.
“Guinea Coup: Military Arrests President, Dissolves Government.” Last modified 2021. Accessed September 20, 2021. https://www.aljazeera.com/ news/2021/9/6/guinea-coup-military-arrest-president-dissolve-government.
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