Binding Sources of International Law vis-à-vis Uṣūl al-fiqh: Towards Developing the Turath on Fiqh al-Siyar

Fajri Matahati Muhammadin

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Abstract

Some contemporary Islamic scholars often merely regurgitate classical scholarship of fiqh al-siyar (Islamic international law) while oblivious of major shifts in the world order back then versus today. Other contemporary scholars do the opposite mistake: going straight to the Qur’an and Sunnah, ignoring over a millennium worth of turath (Islamic scholarly tradition) and end up cherry-picking verses to support inferiority-complex-infused versions of Islam and subjugated by Eurocentric notions of international law.

Hence, fiqh al-siyar is currently in a state of lethargy in turath requiring major projects for development. My research will touch uṣūl al-fiqh (jurisprudence) specifically regarding the sources of Islamic law and how, from them, ijtihad is conducted when interacting with contemporary international law. This is among the foundational issues upon which many further developments of fiqh al-siyar need to be established.

I apply Al-Attas’s “Islamization of Contemporary Knowledge” approach to comprehensively analyze the sources of international law to consider how Islamic law should react and respond to them. For this project, I focus on formally binding sources of international law (treaties, customary international law, general principles of law, and jus cogens). My two findings: (a) most of these sources should not be categorically accepted or rejected (must be carefully considered case-per-case), and (b) jus cogens, in terms of legal status, should be categorically rejected.

Keywords

Islamic Jurisprudence International Law sources of law siyar

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References

Al-‘Uthaymīn, Muḥammad ibn Ṣāliḥ. Al-Qaul Al-Mufid. Vol. 2. Dar al-’Ashima, 1415.
Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib. Islam and Secularism. Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1993.
———. Risalah Untuk Kaum Muslimin. Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 2001.
———. The Concept of Knowledge in Islam: A Framework for an Islamic Philosophy of Education. Kuala Lumpur: The International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1991.
Al-Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl. Sahih Al-Bukhari. Vol. 1. Riyadh: Darussalam, 1997.
———. Sahih Al-Bukhari. Vol. 8. Riyadh: Beirut, 1997.
Al-Dārimī, ‘Uthmān ibn Sa‘īd. Naqḍ Al-Dārimī ‘Alā Al-Marīsī. Maktabah Al-Rushd, 1998.
Al-Fauzan, Shalih bin Fauzan. Syarah Nawaaqidhul Islam. Jakarta: Akbar Media, 2017.
Al-Fazārī, Abū Isḥāq. Kitāb Al-Siyar. Beirut: Mu’assasah al-Risālāh, 1408.
Al-Ghazālī, Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad. Al-Muṣtaṣfa Min ‘Ilm Al-Uṣūl. Vol. 1. al-Qāhirah: Al-Amiriya Press, 1324.
Al-Ḥajjāwī, Mūsá ibn Aḥmad. Al-Iqnā‘ Al-Ṭālib Al-Intifā‘. Vol. 4. Darah Al-Malik ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 2002.
Al-Khasawneh, Awn S. “Islam and International Law.” In Islam and International Law: Engaging Self-Centrism from a Plurality of Perspectives, edited by Marie-Luisa Frick and Andreas Th Müller, 29–44. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2013.
Al-Mawsū‘ah Al-Fiqhiyyah. Vol. 12. Kuwait: Wizarah al-Awqaf wa al-Shu’un al-Islāmiyyah, 2003.
Al-Nawawī, Yaḥya ibn Sharaf. Al-Arba‘ūn Al-Nawawiyyah. Beirut: Dar al-Minhaj, 2009.
Al-Qaraḍāwi, Yūsuf. Ri’āyat Al-Bī‘ah Fi Al-Sharī’ah Al-Islām. Beirut: Dar Al-Shurūq, 2001.
Al-Ruḥayli, Ḥamūd. Al-‘Alamaniyyah Wa Mawqif Al-Islām Minhā. Madinah: Madinah International University, 1422.
Al-Sarakhsī, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Abi Sahl. Sharḥ Al-Siyār Al-Kabīr. Egypt: Al-Shirkah al-Sharqiyyah li l-I‘lānāt, 1971.
Al-Shafi’i, Imam. Shafi’is Risalah: Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence (Translated with an Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by Majid Khadduri). 2nd ed. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1987.
Al-Shawkānī, Muḥammad ibn ‘Alī. Irshād Al-Fuḥūl. Vol. 2. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab Al-‘Arabi, 1999.
Al-Sijistānī, Abu Dawud Sulaymān ibn al-Ash‘ath. Sunan Abu Dawud. Vol. 3. Riyadh: Darussalam, 2008.
Al-Tirmidhī, Muḥammad ibn ʿĪsā al-Sulamī. Jami Al-Tirmidhi. Vol. 3. Riyadh: Darussalam, 2007.
Al-Utsaimin, Muhammad bin Shalih. Ushul Fiqih. Yogyakarta: Media Hidayah, 2008.
Al-Zarkashī, Badr ad-Dīn Muḥammad. Tashnīf Al-Masāmi’. Vol. 3. Makkah: Maktabah Al-Makiyyah, 1998.
Al-Zarqā, Mustafa Ahmad. Sharh Al-Qawāʾid Al-Fiqhiyyah. Damascus: Dar al-Qalam, 1989.
al-Zuḥaylī, Wahbah. Fiqih Islam Wa Al-Adillatuhu. Vol. 1. Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 2011.
Al-Zuḥaylī, Wahbah. Fiqih Islam Wa Al-Adillatuhu. Vol. 8. Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 2011.
———. Fiqih Islam Wa Al-Adillatuhu. Vol. 5. Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 2011.
Ali, Shaheen Sardar, and Satwant Kaur Heer. “What Is the Measure of ‘Universality’? Critical Reflections on ‘Islamic’ Criminal Law and Muslim State Practice Vis-à-Vis the Rome Statute and the International Criminal Court.” In Islam and International Criminal Law and Justice, edited by Tallyn Gray. Brussels: Torkel Opsahl, 2018.
Amrullah, Haji Abdulmalik Abdulkarim. Tafsir Al-Azhar. Vol. 3. Singapore: Pustaka Nasional PTE Ltd, n.d.
Badawi, Nesrine. “Regulation of Armed Conflict: Critical Comparativism.” Third World Quarterly 37, no. 11 (2016): 1990–2009.
Bassiouni, M Cherif. “International Crimes: Jus cogens and Obligatio Erga Omnes.” Law & Contemporary Problems 59 (1996): 63.
Basyir, Ahmad Azhar. Ikhtisar Hukum Internasional Islam. Yogyakarta: UII Press, 2010.
Boyle, Alan, and Christine Chinkin. The Making of International Law. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Brölmann, Catherine. “Law-Making Treaties: Form and Function in International Law.” Nordic Journal of International Law 74, no. 3–4 (2005): 383–403.
Daud, Wan Mohd Nor Wan. The Educational Philosophy and Practice of Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas: An Exposition of the Original Concept of Islamization. Kuala Lumpur: The International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC), 1998.
David, Harris. Cases and Materials on International Law. Sweet & Maxwell. 7th ed., 2010.
Djazuli, H. A. Kaidah-Kaidah Fikih. Jakarta: Kencana, 2017.
Dörr, Oliver, and Kirsten Schmalenbach, eds. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A Commentary. Berlin: Springer, 2012.
Duggal, Kabir, and Wendy W. Cai. Principles of Evidence in Public International Law as Applied by Investor-State Tribunals. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 2019.
Farrar, Salim. “The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation: Forever on the Periphery of Public International Law?” Chinese Journal of International Law 13, no. 4 (2014): 787–817.
Fraser, Julie. “Exploring Legal Compatibilities and Pursuing Cultural Legitimacy: Islamic Law and the International Criminal Court.” In Intersections of Law and Culture at the International Criminal Court, edited by Julie Fraser and Brianne McGonigle Leyh. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2020.
Ghazaly, Abdul Rahman, Ghufron Ihsan, and Sapiudin Shidiq. Fiqh Muamalat. Jakarta: Kencana and Prenada Media Group, 2010.
Goldsmith, Jack L, and Eric A Posner. The Limits of International Law. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Harris, Khalif Muammar A. “Pandangan Islam Terhadap Tradisi Dan Kemodenan.” Jurnal Hadhari 4, no. 1 (2012): 23–48.
Hathaway, Oona A, and Scott J Shapiro. “Outcasting: Enforcement in Domestic and International Law.” Yale Law Journal 121, no. 2 (2011): 252–349.
Ibn Taymiyyah, Aḥmad ibn `Abd al-Ḥalīm. Majmu‘ Al-Fatāwa. Vol. 31. Dar al-Wafa, 1426.
———. Majmū’ Al-Fatāwā. Vol. 27. Madinah: Mujamma’ al-Malik Fahd, 2004.
———. Raf’ Al-Malām ‘an Al-Aimmat Al-A‘Lām. Riyadh: Dār al-Iftā’, 1413.
International Law Commission. “Yearbook of the International Law Commission of 1989 (Vol I).” New York, 1989. https://legal.un.org/ilc/publications/yearbooks/english/ilc_1989_v1.pdf.
Kasule, Umar Ahmad. Contemporary Muslims and Human Rights Discourse: A Critical Assessment. Selangor Darul Ehsan: IIUM Press, 2009.
Khan, Zara. “Refractions Through the Secular: Islam, Human Rights, and Universality.” Ph.D Dissertation, The City University of New York, 2016.
Linderfalk, Ulf. “Normative Conflict and the Fuzziness of the International Ius Cogens Regime.” Zeitschrift Für Ausländisches Öffentliches Recht Und Völkerrecht 69 (2009): 961–77.
———. “The Effect of Jus cogens Norms: Whoever Opened Pandora’s Box, Did You Ever Think About the Consequences?” European Journal of International Law 18, no. 5 (2007): 853–71.
Mansur, Ali Ali. Syari’at Islam Dan Hukum Internasional Umum. Jakarta: Penerbit Bulan Bintang, 1973.
Mu’nim, Abdul. “Al-Qawa’id Al-Fiqhiyyah: Proses Penalaran Induktif Dalam Kajian Hukum Islam.” Jurnal Asy-Syir’ah 43, no. 2 (2009).
Muhammadin, Fajri Matahati. “Fiqh Al-Jihād In The Contemporary World: Addressing The Gaps In The Regulations On The Means And Methods Of Warfare.” Ph.D Thesis, International Islamic University of Malaysia, 2020.
———. Mukadimah Fikih Siyar: Pokok-Pokok Hukum Internasional Islam Kontemporer. Yogyakarta: Bentala Tamadun Nusantara, 2021.
———. “Urgensi Majelis Ulama Indonesia Membersamai Pemerintah Dalam Hukum Internasional.” El-Dusturie 2, no. 1 (2023).
Muhammadin, Fajri Matahati, and Shania Dwini Azzahra. “The Role of Fiqh Al-Siyar in International Law-Making: Escaping the Lethargy.” Al-Jami’ah: Journal of Islamic Studies 60, no. 2 (2022): 509–46.
Muhammadin, Fajri Matahati, and Mohd Hisham Mohd Kamal. “The Western Universalism v. Cultural Relativism Debate on Human Rights and Islam: An ‘Aqīdah-Based Approach.” Afkar: Journal of ’Aqidah & Islamic Thought 21, no. 2 (2019): 175–216.
Muhammadin, Fajri Matahati, Dian Agung Wicaksono, Almonika Cindy Fatika Sari, and Ola Anisa Ayutama. “Lashing in Qanun Aceh and the Convention Against Torture.” Malaysian Journal of Syariah and Law 7, no. 1 (2019): 11–24.
Nahirudin, Muhammad. “Istihsan Dan Formulasinya (Pro Kontra Istihsan Dalam Pandangan Mazhab Hanafi Dan Syafi’i).” Jurnal Asy-Syir’ah 43, no. 1 (2009): 161–82.
Nyazee, Imran Ahsan Khan. Islamic Jurisprudence. Selangor: The Other Press, 2003.
Parry, John T. “What Is the Grotian Tradition in International Law?” University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law 35, no. 2 (2013): 299–377.
United Nations General Assembly, Supplement No. 10 (A/74/10). “Report of the International Law Commission: Seventy-First Session (29 April–7 June and 8 July–9 August 2019),” 2019. https://legal.un.org/docs/?symbol=A/74/10.
Saleem, Muhammad Yusuf. Islamic Commercial Law. Singapore: Wiley, 2012.
Shaw, Malcolm N. International Law. 6th ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
———. International Law. 8th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.
Tabiu, Ramadan, and Eddy O.S. Hiariej. “Pertentangan Asas Legalitas Formil Dan Materiil Dalam Rancangan Undang-Undang KUHP.” Jurnal Penelitian Hukum-Fakultas Hukum Universitas Gadjah Mada 2, no. 1 (2015): 28–36.
Villiger, Mark E. Commentary on the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Leiden-Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2009.
Wahid, Marzuki, ed. Fikih Energi Terbaharukan: Pandangan Dan Respons Islam Atas Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Surya (PLTS). Jakarta: LAKPESDAM-PBNU, 2017.
Waltz, Susan. “Universal Human Rights: The Contribution of Muslim States.” Human Rights Quarterly 26, no. 4 (2004): 799–844.
Weeramantry, Christopher G. Islamic Jurisprudence: An International Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan, 1988.
Zahid, Md Anowar, and Rohimi B Shapiee. “Considering Custom in the Making of Siyar (Islamic International Law).” JE Asia & Int’l L. 3 (2010): 123.
Zaidan, Abdul Karim. Al-Wajiz: 100 Kaidah Fikih Dalam Kehidupan Sehari-Hari. Jakarta: Pustaka Al-Kautsar, 2008.

References

Al-‘Uthaymīn, Muḥammad ibn Ṣāliḥ. Al-Qaul Al-Mufid. Vol. 2. Dar al-’Ashima, 1415.

Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib. Islam and Secularism. Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1993.

———. Risalah Untuk Kaum Muslimin. Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 2001.

———. The Concept of Knowledge in Islam: A Framework for an Islamic Philosophy of Education. Kuala Lumpur: The International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1991.

Al-Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl. Sahih Al-Bukhari. Vol. 1. Riyadh: Darussalam, 1997.

———. Sahih Al-Bukhari. Vol. 8. Riyadh: Beirut, 1997.

Al-Dārimī, ‘Uthmān ibn Sa‘īd. Naqḍ Al-Dārimī ‘Alā Al-Marīsī. Maktabah Al-Rushd, 1998.

Al-Fauzan, Shalih bin Fauzan. Syarah Nawaaqidhul Islam. Jakarta: Akbar Media, 2017.

Al-Fazārī, Abū Isḥāq. Kitāb Al-Siyar. Beirut: Mu’assasah al-Risālāh, 1408.

Al-Ghazālī, Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad. Al-Muṣtaṣfa Min ‘Ilm Al-Uṣūl. Vol. 1. al-Qāhirah: Al-Amiriya Press, 1324.

Al-Ḥajjāwī, Mūsá ibn Aḥmad. Al-Iqnā‘ Al-Ṭālib Al-Intifā‘. Vol. 4. Darah Al-Malik ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 2002.

Al-Khasawneh, Awn S. “Islam and International Law.” In Islam and International Law: Engaging Self-Centrism from a Plurality of Perspectives, edited by Marie-Luisa Frick and Andreas Th Müller, 29–44. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2013.

Al-Mawsū‘ah Al-Fiqhiyyah. Vol. 12. Kuwait: Wizarah al-Awqaf wa al-Shu’un al-Islāmiyyah, 2003.

Al-Nawawī, Yaḥya ibn Sharaf. Al-Arba‘ūn Al-Nawawiyyah. Beirut: Dar al-Minhaj, 2009.

Al-Qaraḍāwi, Yūsuf. Ri’āyat Al-Bī‘ah Fi Al-Sharī’ah Al-Islām. Beirut: Dar Al-Shurūq, 2001.

Al-Ruḥayli, Ḥamūd. Al-‘Alamaniyyah Wa Mawqif Al-Islām Minhā. Madinah: Madinah International University, 1422.

Al-Sarakhsī, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Abi Sahl. Sharḥ Al-Siyār Al-Kabīr. Egypt: Al-Shirkah al-Sharqiyyah li l-I‘lānāt, 1971.

Al-Shafi’i, Imam. Shafi’is Risalah: Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence (Translated with an Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by Majid Khadduri). 2nd ed. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1987.

Al-Shawkānī, Muḥammad ibn ‘Alī. Irshād Al-Fuḥūl. Vol. 2. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab Al-‘Arabi, 1999.

Al-Sijistānī, Abu Dawud Sulaymān ibn al-Ash‘ath. Sunan Abu Dawud. Vol. 3. Riyadh: Darussalam, 2008.

Al-Tirmidhī, Muḥammad ibn ʿĪsā al-Sulamī. Jami Al-Tirmidhi. Vol. 3. Riyadh: Darussalam, 2007.

Al-Utsaimin, Muhammad bin Shalih. Ushul Fiqih. Yogyakarta: Media Hidayah, 2008.

Al-Zarkashī, Badr ad-Dīn Muḥammad. Tashnīf Al-Masāmi’. Vol. 3. Makkah: Maktabah Al-Makiyyah, 1998.

Al-Zarqā, Mustafa Ahmad. Sharh Al-Qawāʾid Al-Fiqhiyyah. Damascus: Dar al-Qalam, 1989.

al-Zuḥaylī, Wahbah. Fiqih Islam Wa Al-Adillatuhu. Vol. 1. Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 2011.

Al-Zuḥaylī, Wahbah. Fiqih Islam Wa Al-Adillatuhu. Vol. 8. Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 2011.

———. Fiqih Islam Wa Al-Adillatuhu. Vol. 5. Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 2011.

Ali, Shaheen Sardar, and Satwant Kaur Heer. “What Is the Measure of ‘Universality’? Critical Reflections on ‘Islamic’ Criminal Law and Muslim State Practice Vis-à-Vis the Rome Statute and the International Criminal Court.” In Islam and International Criminal Law and Justice, edited by Tallyn Gray. Brussels: Torkel Opsahl, 2018.

Amrullah, Haji Abdulmalik Abdulkarim. Tafsir Al-Azhar. Vol. 3. Singapore: Pustaka Nasional PTE Ltd, n.d.

Badawi, Nesrine. “Regulation of Armed Conflict: Critical Comparativism.” Third World Quarterly 37, no. 11 (2016): 1990–2009.

Bassiouni, M Cherif. “International Crimes: Jus cogens and Obligatio Erga Omnes.” Law & Contemporary Problems 59 (1996): 63.

Basyir, Ahmad Azhar. Ikhtisar Hukum Internasional Islam. Yogyakarta: UII Press, 2010.

Boyle, Alan, and Christine Chinkin. The Making of International Law. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Brölmann, Catherine. “Law-Making Treaties: Form and Function in International Law.” Nordic Journal of International Law 74, no. 3–4 (2005): 383–403.

Daud, Wan Mohd Nor Wan. The Educational Philosophy and Practice of Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas: An Exposition of the Original Concept of Islamization. Kuala Lumpur: The International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC), 1998.

David, Harris. Cases and Materials on International Law. Sweet & Maxwell. 7th ed., 2010.

Djazuli, H. A. Kaidah-Kaidah Fikih. Jakarta: Kencana, 2017.

Dörr, Oliver, and Kirsten Schmalenbach, eds. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A Commentary. Berlin: Springer, 2012.

Duggal, Kabir, and Wendy W. Cai. Principles of Evidence in Public International Law as Applied by Investor-State Tribunals. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 2019.

Farrar, Salim. “The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation: Forever on the Periphery of Public International Law?” Chinese Journal of International Law 13, no. 4 (2014): 787–817.

Fraser, Julie. “Exploring Legal Compatibilities and Pursuing Cultural Legitimacy: Islamic Law and the International Criminal Court.” In Intersections of Law and Culture at the International Criminal Court, edited by Julie Fraser and Brianne McGonigle Leyh. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2020.

Ghazaly, Abdul Rahman, Ghufron Ihsan, and Sapiudin Shidiq. Fiqh Muamalat. Jakarta: Kencana and Prenada Media Group, 2010.

Goldsmith, Jack L, and Eric A Posner. The Limits of International Law. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Harris, Khalif Muammar A. “Pandangan Islam Terhadap Tradisi Dan Kemodenan.” Jurnal Hadhari 4, no. 1 (2012): 23–48.

Hathaway, Oona A, and Scott J Shapiro. “Outcasting: Enforcement in Domestic and International Law.” Yale Law Journal 121, no. 2 (2011): 252–349.

Ibn Taymiyyah, Aḥmad ibn `Abd al-Ḥalīm. Majmu‘ Al-Fatāwa. Vol. 31. Dar al-Wafa, 1426.

———. Majmū’ Al-Fatāwā. Vol. 27. Madinah: Mujamma’ al-Malik Fahd, 2004.

———. Raf’ Al-Malām ‘an Al-Aimmat Al-A‘Lām. Riyadh: Dār al-Iftā’, 1413.

International Law Commission. “Yearbook of the International Law Commission of 1989 (Vol I).” New York, 1989. https://legal.un.org/ilc/publications/yearbooks/english/ilc_1989_v1.pdf.

Kasule, Umar Ahmad. Contemporary Muslims and Human Rights Discourse: A Critical Assessment. Selangor Darul Ehsan: IIUM Press, 2009.

Khan, Zara. “Refractions Through the Secular: Islam, Human Rights, and Universality.” Ph.D Dissertation, The City University of New York, 2016.

Linderfalk, Ulf. “Normative Conflict and the Fuzziness of the International Ius Cogens Regime.” Zeitschrift Für Ausländisches Öffentliches Recht Und Völkerrecht 69 (2009): 961–77.

———. “The Effect of Jus cogens Norms: Whoever Opened Pandora’s Box, Did You Ever Think About the Consequences?” European Journal of International Law 18, no. 5 (2007): 853–71.

Mansur, Ali Ali. Syari’at Islam Dan Hukum Internasional Umum. Jakarta: Penerbit Bulan Bintang, 1973.

Mu’nim, Abdul. “Al-Qawa’id Al-Fiqhiyyah: Proses Penalaran Induktif Dalam Kajian Hukum Islam.” Jurnal Asy-Syir’ah 43, no. 2 (2009).

Muhammadin, Fajri Matahati. “Fiqh Al-Jihād In The Contemporary World: Addressing The Gaps In The Regulations On The Means And Methods Of Warfare.” Ph.D Thesis, International Islamic University of Malaysia, 2020.

———. Mukadimah Fikih Siyar: Pokok-Pokok Hukum Internasional Islam Kontemporer. Yogyakarta: Bentala Tamadun Nusantara, 2021.

———. “Urgensi Majelis Ulama Indonesia Membersamai Pemerintah Dalam Hukum Internasional.” El-Dusturie 2, no. 1 (2023).

Muhammadin, Fajri Matahati, and Shania Dwini Azzahra. “The Role of Fiqh Al-Siyar in International Law-Making: Escaping the Lethargy.” Al-Jami’ah: Journal of Islamic Studies 60, no. 2 (2022): 509–46.

Muhammadin, Fajri Matahati, and Mohd Hisham Mohd Kamal. “The Western Universalism v. Cultural Relativism Debate on Human Rights and Islam: An ‘Aqīdah-Based Approach.” Afkar: Journal of ’Aqidah & Islamic Thought 21, no. 2 (2019): 175–216.

Muhammadin, Fajri Matahati, Dian Agung Wicaksono, Almonika Cindy Fatika Sari, and Ola Anisa Ayutama. “Lashing in Qanun Aceh and the Convention Against Torture.” Malaysian Journal of Syariah and Law 7, no. 1 (2019): 11–24.

Nahirudin, Muhammad. “Istihsan Dan Formulasinya (Pro Kontra Istihsan Dalam Pandangan Mazhab Hanafi Dan Syafi’i).” Jurnal Asy-Syir’ah 43, no. 1 (2009): 161–82.

Nyazee, Imran Ahsan Khan. Islamic Jurisprudence. Selangor: The Other Press, 2003.

Parry, John T. “What Is the Grotian Tradition in International Law?” University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law 35, no. 2 (2013): 299–377.

United Nations General Assembly, Supplement No. 10 (A/74/10). “Report of the International Law Commission: Seventy-First Session (29 April–7 June and 8 July–9 August 2019),” 2019. https://legal.un.org/docs/?symbol=A/74/10.

Saleem, Muhammad Yusuf. Islamic Commercial Law. Singapore: Wiley, 2012.

Shaw, Malcolm N. International Law. 6th ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

———. International Law. 8th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.

Tabiu, Ramadan, and Eddy O.S. Hiariej. “Pertentangan Asas Legalitas Formil Dan Materiil Dalam Rancangan Undang-Undang KUHP.” Jurnal Penelitian Hukum-Fakultas Hukum Universitas Gadjah Mada 2, no. 1 (2015): 28–36.

Villiger, Mark E. Commentary on the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Leiden-Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2009.

Wahid, Marzuki, ed. Fikih Energi Terbaharukan: Pandangan Dan Respons Islam Atas Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Surya (PLTS). Jakarta: LAKPESDAM-PBNU, 2017.

Waltz, Susan. “Universal Human Rights: The Contribution of Muslim States.” Human Rights Quarterly 26, no. 4 (2004): 799–844.

Weeramantry, Christopher G. Islamic Jurisprudence: An International Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan, 1988.

Zahid, Md Anowar, and Rohimi B Shapiee. “Considering Custom in the Making of Siyar (Islamic International Law).” JE Asia & Int’l L. 3 (2010): 123.

Zaidan, Abdul Karim. Al-Wajiz: 100 Kaidah Fikih Dalam Kehidupan Sehari-Hari. Jakarta: Pustaka Al-Kautsar, 2008.

Binding Sources of International Law vis-à-vis Uṣūl al-fiqh: Towards Developing the Turath on Fiqh al-Siyar

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