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A hypothesis on the relationship between disaster management and religion is that the benefits of disaster recovery increase with an increase in religious diversity in disaster recovery. This article aims to examine the role of faith communities during disaster recovery with the ultimate goal of increasing religious diversity. Qualitative descriptive analysis was used to examine mass care–oriented disaster recovery and further specialized care across four stakeholders: religiously highly diverse countries, religiously moderately diverse countries, religiously least diverse countries, and international organizations. Additionally, the PRISMA 2020 checklist and flow diagram were employed as supplementary tools. A key tenet was that all four stakeholders should try to supplement mass care–oriented disaster recovery (e.g., sheltering, feeding, health services) with further specialized care while appropriately addressing religious tolerance, literacy, and competency, as well as the roles of emergency managers and sustainable education. This study provided a more comprehensive description of including faith communities in disaster recovery than was available in the existing literature.
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References
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Adon, M. J. (2021). Spirituality of Catholic teachers in realizing multicultural education in Indonesia. Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, 21(1), 275–310. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol21.iss1.art10
Al Qurtuby, S. (2023). Beyond liberal peace: Religious violence and tactical peacebuilding in Indonesia. Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs, 10(2), 145–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/23477970231173525
Alles, G. D. (2023). The study of indigenous religions. In G. D. Alles, Oxford research encyclopedia of religion. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.1129
Bennett, M. R., Parameshwaran, M., Schmid, K., Ramos, M., & Hewstone, M. (2022). Effects of neighbourhood religious diversity and religious and national identity on neighbourhood trust. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 25(5), 1248–1268. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430221990095
Beuk, S. (2019). Book review: Politicization of religion, the power of state, nation, and faith: The case of former Yugoslavia and its successor states. Occasional Papers on Religion in Eastern Europe, 39(3), 79–84. https://doi.org/-
Borja, M. (2025). Severing ties: Ritual objects and the category of religion in Hmong American families. Religion, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/0048721X.2024.2444130
Canaan, S., Deeb, A., & Mouganie, P. (2022). Does religious diversity improve trust and performance? Evidence from Lebanon (IZA Discussion Papers 15206). https://www.iza.org/de/publications/dp/15206/does-religious-diversity-improve-trust-and-performance-evidence-from-lebanon
Cherry, K. E., Sampson, L., Nezat, P. F., Cacamo, A., Marks, L. D., & Galea, S. (2015). Long-term psychological outcomes in older adults after disaster: Relationships to religiosity and social support. Aging & Mental Health, 19(5), 430–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2014.941325
Chung, H. H., Johnson, A. E., Tan, C. S., & Pitman, B. C. (2024). Religious diversity at work: Faith-based employee resource groups. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 21(1), 129–155. https://doi.org/10.51327/DYNZ1123
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Colorafi, K. J., & Evans, B. (2016). Qualitative descriptive methods in health science research. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 9(4), 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1937586715614171
Cullen, C., & Ray, S. (2022, April 7). The role of faith-based organizations in disaster recovery [HTML]. Center for Disaster Philanthropy. https://disasterphilanthropy.org/blog/the-role-of-faith-based-organizations-in-disaster-recovery/
Cvetković, V. M., Romanić, S., & Beriša, H. (2023). Religion influence on disaster risk reduction: A case study of Serbia. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 5(1), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2023.5.1.6
Doyle, L., McCabe, C., Keogh, B., Brady, A., & McCann, M. (2020). An overview of the qualitative descriptive design within nursing research. Journal of Research in Nursing, 25(5), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987119880234
Eballo, A. D., & Eballo, M. B. (2024). Religion and strategic disaster risk management in the better normal: The case of the Pagoda Sa Wawa Fluvial Festival in Bocaue, Bulacan, Philippines. Religions, 15(2), 223. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15020223
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Fehr, T. (2022). Nepal’s post-earthquake development surge: The unintended local impacts of reconstruction. Sociology of Development, 8(3), 272–293. https://doi.org/10.1525/sod.2021.0021
FEMA - Emergency Management Institute. (2016, March 4). IS-505: Concepts of religious literacy for emergency management [HTML]. FEMA - Emergency Management Institute. https://training.fema.gov/is/courseoverview.aspx?code=IS-505&lang=en
Forino, G. (Ed.). (2024). Disasters and changes in society and politics: Contemporary perspectives from Italy. Bristol University Press. https://doi.org/10.56687/9781529226775
Gray‐Hildenbrand, J., & King, R. (2019). Teaching in contexts: Designing a competency‐based religious studies program. Teaching Theology & Religion, 22(3), 191–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/teth.12495
Grim, B. J. (2020, January). Forgetting importance of religious diversity during disaster recovery [HTML]. World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/religion-diversity-business-inclusion/
Hakkim, A., & Deb, A. (2022). Religious meaning-making and prosocial action among disaster response volunteers. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 25(7), 712–734. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2022.2116634
Holleman, A., Roso, J., & Chaves, M. (2022). Religious congregations’ technological and financial capacities on the eve of the COVID-19 pandemic. Review of Religious Research, 64(1), 163–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-021-00477-8
Holmgaard, S. B. (2019). The role of religion in local perceptions of disasters: The case of post-tsunami religious and social change in Samoa. Environmental Hazards, 18(4), 311–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/17477891.2018.1546664
Hoover, D. R. (2023). Can we have religious freedom and social harmony? The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 21(2), 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2023.2179725
International Committee of the Red Cross. (2021, February 1). Religious Institutions and Disasters: Scope for DRR and Long-term Recovery [HTML]. Religion and Humanitarian Principles. https://blogs.icrc.org/religion-humanitarianprinciples/religious-institutions-and-disasters-scope-for-drr-and-long-term-recovery/
Jegalus, N., Atang, A., & Binsasi, N. A. (2024). Unity in diversity of religions in Bumi Flobamora, Indonesia: From traditional to modern pluralism. Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, 23(2), 703–742. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol23.iss2.art7
Khafagy, R. A. (2020). Faith-based organizations: Humanitarian mission or religious missionary. Journal of International Humanitarian Action, 5(1), Article number: 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-020-00080-6
Koukounaras-Liagkis, M. (2015). Religion and religious diversity within education in a social pedagogical context in times of crisis: San religious education contribute to community cohesion? International Journal of Social Pedagogy, 4(1), 85–100. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.444.ijsp.2015.v4.1.007
Lin, X., Chen, Q., Wei, L., Lu, Y., Chen, Y., & He, Z. (2022). Exploring the trend in religious diversity: Based on the geographical perspective. PLoS ONE, 17(7), e0271343. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271343
Loeb, S., Dynarski, S., McFarland, D., Morris, P., Reardon, S., & Reber, S. (2017). Descriptive analysis in education: A guide for researchers (NCEE 2017-4023). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED573325
Lundgren, L., & Fransson, S. (2023). The differences between actions and desires: The role of religious congregations in national crises and disasters. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 31(3), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.12450
McEntire, D. A. (2021). Disasters and the theory of emergency management. In D. A. McEntire, Oxford research encyclopedia of politics. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1539
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Nawaz, N., Gajenderan, V., Gopinath, U. M., & Tharanya, V. (2024). Nexus between emotional intelligence and occupational stress: Role of workplace spirituality among teaching fraternity. Asia Pacific Management Review, 29(1), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmrv.2023.11.001
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Sledge, D., & Thomas, H. F. (2019). From disaster response to community recovery: Nongovernmental entities, government, and public health. American Journal of Public Health, 109(3), 437–444. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304895
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References
Adams, R. (2023, February 24). How churches became a refuge in Syria after the earthquakes [HTML]. Tearfund. https://www.tearfund.org/stories/2023/02/how-churches-became-a-refuge-in-syria-after-the-earthquakes
Adon, M. J. (2021). Spirituality of Catholic teachers in realizing multicultural education in Indonesia. Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, 21(1), 275–310. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol21.iss1.art10
Al Qurtuby, S. (2023). Beyond liberal peace: Religious violence and tactical peacebuilding in Indonesia. Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs, 10(2), 145–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/23477970231173525
Alles, G. D. (2023). The study of indigenous religions. In G. D. Alles, Oxford research encyclopedia of religion. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.1129
Bennett, M. R., Parameshwaran, M., Schmid, K., Ramos, M., & Hewstone, M. (2022). Effects of neighbourhood religious diversity and religious and national identity on neighbourhood trust. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 25(5), 1248–1268. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430221990095
Beuk, S. (2019). Book review: Politicization of religion, the power of state, nation, and faith: The case of former Yugoslavia and its successor states. Occasional Papers on Religion in Eastern Europe, 39(3), 79–84. https://doi.org/-
Borja, M. (2025). Severing ties: Ritual objects and the category of religion in Hmong American families. Religion, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/0048721X.2024.2444130
Canaan, S., Deeb, A., & Mouganie, P. (2022). Does religious diversity improve trust and performance? Evidence from Lebanon (IZA Discussion Papers 15206). https://www.iza.org/de/publications/dp/15206/does-religious-diversity-improve-trust-and-performance-evidence-from-lebanon
Cherry, K. E., Sampson, L., Nezat, P. F., Cacamo, A., Marks, L. D., & Galea, S. (2015). Long-term psychological outcomes in older adults after disaster: Relationships to religiosity and social support. Aging & Mental Health, 19(5), 430–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2014.941325
Chung, H. H., Johnson, A. E., Tan, C. S., & Pitman, B. C. (2024). Religious diversity at work: Faith-based employee resource groups. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 21(1), 129–155. https://doi.org/10.51327/DYNZ1123
Church World Service. (2020, September). Latin American local faith community responses to Venezuelan migration [PDF]. Church World Service. https://cwsglobal.org/reports/local-faith-community-responses-to-venezuelan-migration/
Clarke, M., & Parris, B. W. (2019). Understanding disasters: Managing and accommodating different worldviews in humanitarian response. Journal of International Humanitarian Action, 4(1), Article number: 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-019-0066-7
Colorafi, K. J., & Evans, B. (2016). Qualitative descriptive methods in health science research. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 9(4), 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1937586715614171
Cullen, C., & Ray, S. (2022, April 7). The role of faith-based organizations in disaster recovery [HTML]. Center for Disaster Philanthropy. https://disasterphilanthropy.org/blog/the-role-of-faith-based-organizations-in-disaster-recovery/
Cvetković, V. M., Romanić, S., & Beriša, H. (2023). Religion influence on disaster risk reduction: A case study of Serbia. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 5(1), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.18485/ijdrm.2023.5.1.6
Doyle, L., McCabe, C., Keogh, B., Brady, A., & McCann, M. (2020). An overview of the qualitative descriptive design within nursing research. Journal of Research in Nursing, 25(5), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987119880234
Eballo, A. D., & Eballo, M. B. (2024). Religion and strategic disaster risk management in the better normal: The case of the Pagoda Sa Wawa Fluvial Festival in Bocaue, Bulacan, Philippines. Religions, 15(2), 223. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15020223
Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2024). Engaging faith-based and community organizations: Planning considerations for emergency managers. Homeland Security. https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo236121
Fehr, T. (2022). Nepal’s post-earthquake development surge: The unintended local impacts of reconstruction. Sociology of Development, 8(3), 272–293. https://doi.org/10.1525/sod.2021.0021
FEMA - Emergency Management Institute. (2016, March 4). IS-505: Concepts of religious literacy for emergency management [HTML]. FEMA - Emergency Management Institute. https://training.fema.gov/is/courseoverview.aspx?code=IS-505&lang=en
Forino, G. (Ed.). (2024). Disasters and changes in society and politics: Contemporary perspectives from Italy. Bristol University Press. https://doi.org/10.56687/9781529226775
Gray‐Hildenbrand, J., & King, R. (2019). Teaching in contexts: Designing a competency‐based religious studies program. Teaching Theology & Religion, 22(3), 191–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/teth.12495
Grim, B. J. (2020, January). Forgetting importance of religious diversity during disaster recovery [HTML]. World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/religion-diversity-business-inclusion/
Hakkim, A., & Deb, A. (2022). Religious meaning-making and prosocial action among disaster response volunteers. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 25(7), 712–734. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2022.2116634
Holleman, A., Roso, J., & Chaves, M. (2022). Religious congregations’ technological and financial capacities on the eve of the COVID-19 pandemic. Review of Religious Research, 64(1), 163–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-021-00477-8
Holmgaard, S. B. (2019). The role of religion in local perceptions of disasters: The case of post-tsunami religious and social change in Samoa. Environmental Hazards, 18(4), 311–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/17477891.2018.1546664
Hoover, D. R. (2023). Can we have religious freedom and social harmony? The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 21(2), 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2023.2179725
International Committee of the Red Cross. (2021, February 1). Religious Institutions and Disasters: Scope for DRR and Long-term Recovery [HTML]. Religion and Humanitarian Principles. https://blogs.icrc.org/religion-humanitarianprinciples/religious-institutions-and-disasters-scope-for-drr-and-long-term-recovery/
Jegalus, N., Atang, A., & Binsasi, N. A. (2024). Unity in diversity of religions in Bumi Flobamora, Indonesia: From traditional to modern pluralism. Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, 23(2), 703–742. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol23.iss2.art7
Khafagy, R. A. (2020). Faith-based organizations: Humanitarian mission or religious missionary. Journal of International Humanitarian Action, 5(1), Article number: 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-020-00080-6
Koukounaras-Liagkis, M. (2015). Religion and religious diversity within education in a social pedagogical context in times of crisis: San religious education contribute to community cohesion? International Journal of Social Pedagogy, 4(1), 85–100. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.444.ijsp.2015.v4.1.007
Lin, X., Chen, Q., Wei, L., Lu, Y., Chen, Y., & He, Z. (2022). Exploring the trend in religious diversity: Based on the geographical perspective. PLoS ONE, 17(7), e0271343. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271343
Loeb, S., Dynarski, S., McFarland, D., Morris, P., Reardon, S., & Reber, S. (2017). Descriptive analysis in education: A guide for researchers (NCEE 2017-4023). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED573325
Lundgren, L., & Fransson, S. (2023). The differences between actions and desires: The role of religious congregations in national crises and disasters. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 31(3), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.12450
McEntire, D. A. (2021). Disasters and the theory of emergency management. In D. A. McEntire, Oxford research encyclopedia of politics. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1539
McGeehan, K. M., & Baker, C. K. (2017). Religious narratives and their implications for disaster risk reduction. Disasters, 41(2), 258–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12200
McManus, J. (2016). Making religious diversity work for your trust: Pointers to good practice for the NHS [PDF]. FaithAction. https://www.faithaction.net/portal/wp-content/uploads/Religious-Diversity-Trusts-2016.pdf
Miller, D. W., Ngunjiri, F. W., & Lorusso, J. D. (2018). “The suits care about us”: Employee perceptions of workplace chaplains. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 15(5), 377–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2018.1501414
Miller, K. D. (2020). Discernment in management and organizations. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 17(5), 373–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2020.1812425
Morpurgo, D. (2021). The limits of planning: Avoidance, concealment, and refusal of religious diversity in Northeast Italy. Planning Theory & Practice, 22(1), 72–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649357.2021.1876907
Nawaz, N., Gajenderan, V., Gopinath, U. M., & Tharanya, V. (2024). Nexus between emotional intelligence and occupational stress: Role of workplace spirituality among teaching fraternity. Asia Pacific Management Review, 29(1), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmrv.2023.11.001
Nelson, E. (2010). The religious origins of religious tolerance. Foreign Policy Research Institute. https://www.fpri.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Nelson-E.Book_.pdf
Orr, Z., Erblich, T., Unger, S., Barnea, O., Weinstein, M., & Agnon, A. (2021). Earthquake preparedness among religious minority groups: The case of the Jewish ultra-Orthodox society in Israel. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 21(1), 317–337. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-317-2021
Pew Research Center. (2014, April 4). Global religious diversity: Half of the most religiously diverse countries are in Asia-Pacific region [HTML]. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2014/04/04/global-religious-diversity/
Pickel, G. (2019, July 19). Religious diversity and democracy (Executive summary) [PDF]. Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/en/publications/publication/did/religious-diversity-and-democracy-executive-summary
Raymond, C. D. (2019). Religious diversity and the number of religious parties around the world. Representation, 55(2), 197–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344893.2019.1592014
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