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Abstract
When competing hypotheses show equal explanatory strength, philosophers and scientists often prefer the simpler proposition in the process of theory selection. However, contemporary atheistic arguments, especially the APA, misappropriate parsimony by excluding the God hypothesis from the explanatory system. Here, I evaluate the legitimacy of the APA through an analytical method grounded in Thagard’s coherence principles and Swinburne’s explanatory model to examine whether simplicity alone can serve as a criterion for theory selection. The results show that the APA does not satisfy established coherence criteria, improperly elevating simplicity over explanatory power. Finally, the study proposes a Cross-Domain Coherence (CDC) model that emphasizes multidimensional approaches to theory choice beyond ontological minimalism, offering a framework capable of explaining reality in its full complexity.
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References
Akaike, H. (1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 19(6), 716–723. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAC.1974.1100705
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TAC.1974.1100705Aristotle. (1981). The politics (T. J. Saunders & T. A. Sinclair, Trans.). Penguin Classics.
Aristotle. (2004). The Nicomachean ethics (J. Barnes, Ed.; H. Tredennick & J. A. K. Thomson, Trans.). Penguin Classics.
Baker, A. (2016). Simplicity. In The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/simplicity/
BonJour, L. (1985). The structure of empirical knowledge. Harvard University Press.
Burnham, K. P., & Anderson, D. R. (2004). Multimodel inference: Understanding AIC and BIC in model selection. Sociological Methods & Research, 33(2), 261–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124104268644
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124104268644Carroll, S. (2017). The big picture: On the origins of life, meaning, and the universe itself. Dutton.
Craig, W. L., & Wielenberg, E. J. (2020). A debate on God and morality: What is the best account of objective moral values and duties? (A. L. Johnson, Ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003055259
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003055259Davies, B. (2004). An introduction to the philosophy of religion (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Dawkins, R. (2008). The God delusion: A study of religious belief and skepticism. Mariner Books.
Dawkins, R. (2016). The selfish gene: 40th anniversary edition. Oxford University Press.
Dolezal, J. E. (2017). All that is in God: Evangelical theology and the challenge of classical Christian theism. Reformation Heritage Books.
Drange, T. M. (1998). Nonbelief & evil: Two arguments for the nonexistence of God. Prometheus.
Glass, D. H. (2012). Atheism’s new clothes: Exloring and exposing the claims of the New Atheists. Apollos.
Glass, D. H. (2017). Science, God and Ockham’s razor. Philosophical Studies, 174(5), 1145–1161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-016-0747-7
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-016-0747-7Hare, J. E. (2015). God’s command. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199602018.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199602018.001.0001Koons, R. C. (2000). Realism regained: An exact theory of causation, teleology, and the mind. Oxford University Press.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195135671.001.0001Lehrer, K. (1990). Theory of knowledge. Westview Press.
Lehrer, K. (2000). Theory of knowledge (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Lewis, C. S. (1952). Mere Christianity. Macmillan.
Mackie, J. L. (1982). Miracle of theism: Arguments for and against the existence of God. Oxford University Press.
Martin, M. (1991). The case against Christianity. Temple University Press.
McGrath, A. E. (2008). The open secret: A new vision for natural theology. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444301205
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444301205Morriston, W. (2012). God and the ontological foundation of morality. Religious Studies, 48(1), 15–34. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034412510000740
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034412510000740Nagel, T. (2012). Mind and cosmos: Why the materialist Neo-Darwinian conception of nature is almost certainly false. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199919758.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199919758.001.0001Oppy, G. (2006). Arguing about Gods. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511498978
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511498978Palmer, M. (2001). The question of God: An introduction and sourcebook. Routledge.
Peacocke, A. (1993). Theology sciencitic age: Being and becoming -Natural, divine, and human. Fortress Press.
Plantinga, A. (2011). Where the conflict really lies: Science, religion, and naturalism. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199812097.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199812097.001.0001Polkinghorne, J. (1998). Belief in god in an age of science. Yale University Press.
Ptolemy, & Gingerich, O. (1999). Ptolemy’s Almagest (G. J. Toomer, Ed.). Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691213361
Rosenberg, A. (2011). The atheist’s guide to reality: Enjoying life without illusions. W. W. Norton & Company.
Stace, W. T. (1980). Religion and the modern mind. Praeger.
Stump, E. (2010). Wandering in darkness: Narrative and the problem of suffering. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199277421.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199277421.001.0001Swinburne, R. (2004). The existence of God (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199271672.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199271672.001.0001Thagard, P. (1989). Explanatory coherence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12(3), 435–467. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00057046
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00057046Thagard, P. (2000). Coherence in thought and action. The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/1900.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/1900.001.0001Thagard, P. (2007). Coherence, truth, and the development of scientific knowledge. Philosophy of Science, 74(1), 28–47. https://doi.org/10.1086/520941
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/520941Ward, K. (1982). Rational theology and the creativity of God. B. Blackwell.
Woodward, J. (2014). Scientific explanation. In The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/scientific-explanation/
References
Akaike, H. (1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 19(6), 716–723. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAC.1974.1100705
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TAC.1974.1100705Aristotle. (1981). The politics (T. J. Saunders & T. A. Sinclair, Trans.). Penguin Classics.
Aristotle. (2004). The Nicomachean ethics (J. Barnes, Ed.; H. Tredennick & J. A. K. Thomson, Trans.). Penguin Classics.
Baker, A. (2016). Simplicity. In The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/simplicity/
BonJour, L. (1985). The structure of empirical knowledge. Harvard University Press.
Burnham, K. P., & Anderson, D. R. (2004). Multimodel inference: Understanding AIC and BIC in model selection. Sociological Methods & Research, 33(2), 261–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124104268644
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124104268644Carroll, S. (2017). The big picture: On the origins of life, meaning, and the universe itself. Dutton.
Craig, W. L., & Wielenberg, E. J. (2020). A debate on God and morality: What is the best account of objective moral values and duties? (A. L. Johnson, Ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003055259
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003055259Davies, B. (2004). An introduction to the philosophy of religion (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Dawkins, R. (2008). The God delusion: A study of religious belief and skepticism. Mariner Books.
Dawkins, R. (2016). The selfish gene: 40th anniversary edition. Oxford University Press.
Dolezal, J. E. (2017). All that is in God: Evangelical theology and the challenge of classical Christian theism. Reformation Heritage Books.
Drange, T. M. (1998). Nonbelief & evil: Two arguments for the nonexistence of God. Prometheus.
Glass, D. H. (2012). Atheism’s new clothes: Exloring and exposing the claims of the New Atheists. Apollos.
Glass, D. H. (2017). Science, God and Ockham’s razor. Philosophical Studies, 174(5), 1145–1161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-016-0747-7
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-016-0747-7Hare, J. E. (2015). God’s command. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199602018.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199602018.001.0001Koons, R. C. (2000). Realism regained: An exact theory of causation, teleology, and the mind. Oxford University Press.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195135671.001.0001Lehrer, K. (1990). Theory of knowledge. Westview Press.
Lehrer, K. (2000). Theory of knowledge (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Lewis, C. S. (1952). Mere Christianity. Macmillan.
Mackie, J. L. (1982). Miracle of theism: Arguments for and against the existence of God. Oxford University Press.
Martin, M. (1991). The case against Christianity. Temple University Press.
McGrath, A. E. (2008). The open secret: A new vision for natural theology. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444301205
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444301205Morriston, W. (2012). God and the ontological foundation of morality. Religious Studies, 48(1), 15–34. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034412510000740
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034412510000740Nagel, T. (2012). Mind and cosmos: Why the materialist Neo-Darwinian conception of nature is almost certainly false. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199919758.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199919758.001.0001Oppy, G. (2006). Arguing about Gods. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511498978
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511498978Palmer, M. (2001). The question of God: An introduction and sourcebook. Routledge.
Peacocke, A. (1993). Theology sciencitic age: Being and becoming -Natural, divine, and human. Fortress Press.
Plantinga, A. (2011). Where the conflict really lies: Science, religion, and naturalism. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199812097.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199812097.001.0001Polkinghorne, J. (1998). Belief in god in an age of science. Yale University Press.
Ptolemy, & Gingerich, O. (1999). Ptolemy’s Almagest (G. J. Toomer, Ed.). Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691213361
Rosenberg, A. (2011). The atheist’s guide to reality: Enjoying life without illusions. W. W. Norton & Company.
Stace, W. T. (1980). Religion and the modern mind. Praeger.
Stump, E. (2010). Wandering in darkness: Narrative and the problem of suffering. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199277421.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199277421.001.0001Swinburne, R. (2004). The existence of God (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199271672.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199271672.001.0001Thagard, P. (1989). Explanatory coherence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12(3), 435–467. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00057046
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00057046Thagard, P. (2000). Coherence in thought and action. The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/1900.001.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/1900.001.0001Thagard, P. (2007). Coherence, truth, and the development of scientific knowledge. Philosophy of Science, 74(1), 28–47. https://doi.org/10.1086/520941
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/520941Ward, K. (1982). Rational theology and the creativity of God. B. Blackwell.
Woodward, J. (2014). Scientific explanation. In The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/scientific-explanation/